
Class SJJ ^34 

Book >■ M G 



HOW TO PREPARE 

ESSAYS, LECTURES, ARTICLES 

BOOKS, SPEECHES 

AND LETTERS 

WITH HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 



EUSTACE H." MILES, M.A. 

FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF KING'S COLLEGE, AND HONOURS COACH IN ESSAY-WRITING, 
AT CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY 



SECOND IMPRESSION 



E. P. DUTTON AND CO. 
NEW YORK 

KIVINGTONS 

34, KING STREET. COVENT GARDEN 
LONDON 

1902 



THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED 



PROFESSOR CLIFFORD ALLBUTT 



CONTENTS 



Preface 



PAGE 

xiii 



Part I. 
Introduction, and Summary. 

Chapters 

I. Advantages of being Able to Write and Speak Well . 3 

II. Common Types of Subjects for Compositions . . 9 

III. The Choice of a Subject . . . 13 

IV. Differences between various Classes of Compositions . 16 
V. Different Ways of Learning . . . . 23 

VI. Summary of the Book, with a Rhyme . . . 27 

VII. Some General Principles of Composition . . 37 

VIII. Difficulties and Faults in Composition, with a Sample 

Schoolboy-Essay (Analysed) . . -44 

IX. Aims and Motives of Writers and Speakers . . 48 

Part II. 

Ideas : How to Collect, Select, and Arrange Headings 
and Sub-Headings. 

X. Bad Schemes for Compositions, and Faults of the 

Ideas and Headings . . . . 54 



XI. What the Ideas and Headings ought to be 
XII. How to Collect Ideas in the Form of Headings and 
Sub-Headings . . . 

XIII. Some Headings which are often Omitted 

XIV. Advantages of General Lists of Headings . 
XV Headings for an Essay, etc., on a Period: with 

Rhyme ..... 
XVI. Various Uses for the Period-Headings 



60 

63 

7i 
73 

79 
84 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTERS 

XVII. 
XVIII. 



XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 
XXXI. 

XXXII. 
XXXIII. 
XXXIV. 

XXXV. 



How to Learn Lists of Headings 

Headings for Special Subjects (e.g. Colonisation 

or War) : with a Rhyme 
Headings for an Essay, etc., on a Person . 
Sub- Headings . . . 

Sub-Headings for an Essay, etc., on a Person 
Sub-Headings for the Period-Headings 
Headings for an Essay, etc., on an Author, i 

for Literary Criticism 
Topics for Composition, with Headings for an 

Essay on Progress 
Authorities, and their Faults and Failings: with 

a Rhyme . . . . 

Other Evidences 
Fallacies : with a Rhyme . 
Definitions . . . 

Parallels, Comparisons, and Contrasts 

(See Chapters LI.-LIII.) 
Quotations . . . 

How to Select and Reject Headings 

(Unity, etc.) . . . 

How to Proportion and Underline the Headings 
How to Arrange the Headings . 
The Card-System . . 

Advantages of the Card-System 



87 
91 
93 
95 
96 
107 

129 
133 

139 
145 
150 

159 

162 
163 

166 
170 
172 
186 
192 



Part III. 

How to Express Ideas : Style. 

XXXVI. Expression of Ideas, and Style : General Notes 202 

XXXVII. Difficulties and Faults in Expressing Ideas . 205 
XXXVIII. How to find Characteristics of Expression and 

Style: Matt. vii. 15-27 as an Illustration . 211 
XXXIX. How and how far a Style should be Imitated : 

Originality . . . . . 219 
XL. Force and Vigour * . • .222 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTERS 








XLI. 


Clearness, and Simplicity 




XLII. 


Brevity and Economy 






XLIII. 


Appropriateness, or Adaptation, an 


\ Unity 




XL IV. 


Variety 






XLV. 


Interest, and Suggestiveness 






XLVI. 


Beginnings 






XLVIL 


Endings 






XLVIII. 


Connexion and Cohesion . 






XLIX. 


Emphasis and Impressiveness 






L. 


Absence of Emphasis 






LI. 


Parallels 






LII. 


Comparisons, Analogies, etc. 






LIII. 


Contrasts and Exclusions 






LIV. 


Questions 






LV. 


Other Rhetorical Devices 






LVI. 


Rhythm 






LVII. 


Chapters 






LVIII. 


Paragraphs 






LIX. 


Sentences 






LX. 


Grammar, or Syntax 






LXI. 


Words, or Vocabulary 






LXII. 


Writing, Spelling, and Punctuation 






LXIII. 


Revisions 







Part IV. 

How to Teach, Learn, and Practise Composition : 
with General Hints. 

LXIV. How to Correct Compositions 

LXV. How to Teach Composition 

LXVI. Aims of Teaching 

LXVII. How to Practise 

LXVI 1 1. How to Read . 

LXIX. How to Learn from Lectures, Speeches, etc. 

LXX. General Hints and Helps 



CONTENTS 



Part V. 



Hints on Writing for the Press, Speaking, 
and Letter-Writing. 



CHAPTERS 



LXXI. Hints on Writing for the Press, Correcting Proofs, 

and making Indices . . 367 

LXXII. Speaking . . ... 384 

LXXI 1 1. Letter-Writing . . ... 390 

Part VI. 

Advantages of this System, with Answers to Objections. 

LXXIV. Advantages of this System . . . 397 

LXXV. Objections to this System, with Answers . . 404 

Appendix. 

Some useful Reference-Books , . . 409 

Index . . ... 411 



PREFACE 

MANY who themselves can easily write excellent 
Articles or make excellent Speeches, by the light of 
nature, will utterly fail to teach beginners the art of 
Writing or Speaking. Indeed, some of the very greatest 
Essayists have made quite ridiculous attempts to explain 
how ' Style ' can be acquired, or even what it really is. 

An illustration from elsewhere may show the true 
reason for this failure. A player of Billiards sees 
Roberts making one of his large breaks, or a player 
of Lawn Tennis sees Doherty make a beautiful stroke 
from the back of the court ; or else perhaps it is 
Latham who is playing Tennis or Rackets, or it may 
be some celebrated Cricketer or Rower or Fencer or 
Boxer. But, whoever it may be, if he does his work 
well, then that work will look very easy. The admirer 
now goes home and tries to imitate what he has seen 
the skilled player do ; in the next game which he plays 
he tries to reproduce the stroke, but fails lamentably. 
Why is this ? Probably it is chiefly because he does 
some part or parts of the action wrongly. 

A good stroke at Billiards, for example, is a very 
complex thing. It cannot be perfect unless each part 
of the stroke be perfect in itself; and unless, at the 
same time, each part be perfectly combined with the 



x PREFACE 

other parts. There must be not only perfect parts but 
also perfect co-operation or co-ordination of the parts. 

The one chance of improvement for an average 
individual is to find out what these parts are, and 
then to master them one by one. He must analyse 
the whole stroke, and must not attempt to do it as 
if it were a single unit. It is true that the born 
player, by the light of genius, does the whole stroke as 
a whole stroke, and perhaps is not aware that it can be 
divided into parts : he may even deny it. None the 
less it has often been proved that it can be divided into 
-parts, and that to master each part separately is a much 
easier process than to master the whole at once. It is not 
going too far to say that for average people to master 
the whole stroke at once is an absolute impossibility. 

Unfortunately, however, a great deal of our teaching 
is in the hands of those who do things instinctively and 
by the light of nature. They themselves do the whole 
thing as a whole, all together, and in a single action, and 
they may do the thing very well indeed. But, because 
they do it in this way themselves, it does not in the least 
follow that this is the best way for others to learn to do it. 
They themselves are geniuses, and therefore exceptions : 
most of those who are to be taught are not geniuses but 
average people, or people below the average. The}' have 
to move step by step and with effort over the ground 
which the genius covers with a flying leap. 

And this applies also to Essay-Writing and Speaking. 
They are very complicated processes, and must be prac- 
tised and conquered part by part, before the various parts 



PREFACE xi 

can be successfully combined together, and before Essay- 
Writing and Speaking can be done as single processes. 

Let me take another comparison. Supposing you 
had to build a house, and only had a pile of bricks, 
or perhaps only rough-hewn stones of various sizes. 
How would you set about building your house? We 
will suppose that you can already put bricks in a line, 
and even put mortar between them, or arrange rough- 
hewn stones so that they could make a single wall. 
Now, in building a house, will you begin by making 
a room ? No, perhaps you will first get a full list of 
rooms, etc., and then choose just those which you want. 
Otherwise, you will probably forget some important 
room, or you might even forget the staircase. Secondly 
you will decide on the size and positions of the various 
rooms : you will assign to the chief rooms the largest 
size and the best positions, and you will decide the shape 
of the rooms also. Now you might begin to builcl, for 
now you have your plan mapped out. Now, also, it 
would be time to attend to the mortar. Last of all, there 
might come the furnishing. But it is obvious that you 
could not build a house well or easily, unless you had 
had pi'actice in each one of these departments, in deciding 
on the rooms, in arranging them, in planning them, in 
building them, and in furnishing them. Each part 
would have to be studied by itself, and it is well known 
that there are specialists who give up their lives to one 
or two of these several departments, or even to a sub- 
division of one of them. 

An Essay or a Speech is not less complicated than 



xil PREFACE 

this. I will assume that you have the Words already, 
and the power to fit them into Sentences. You have 
the bricks and a certain kind of mortar. It now 
remains for you to do the rest of the work part by 
part. E.g. you will have to Collect and make a list of 
your Ideas (Headings and Sub-Headings) for the Essay 
or Speech. You will have to Select, deciding which 
are to be used and which are not. You will have to 
Arrange the selected Headings. And then you will 
have to Express them — in itself not a simple task. 

Let me take just one of the branches of Expression 
alone, and you can then realise how complicated is the 
process of Essay-writing or Speaking. You have an 
Idea which you feel ought to be Emphasised, because 
it is so important. Now how can you emphasise it ? 
Of course you can underline it, or you can repeat it, 
perhaps changing the words. Well and good : these 
are quite legitimate means, though there are some who 
do not allow underlining. But what other means can 
you use ? W T hen I wished just now to emphasise the 
difficulty and complexity of most of the things that 
geniuses do so easily, I emphasised it by a Com- 
parison or Illustration, namely that of building a house. 
It is the same with Essay-Writing and Speaking. This 
is one of the most useful means of Emphasising, and 
is really (see p. 284) a form of Repetition. By a Com- 
parison we repeat the Idea under a slight disguise. 
And why did I particularly choose the building of a 
house, or the playing of a game? I did so because 
I thought that it would be easier to understand, and I 



PREFACE xiii 

thought also that it would be more interesting. Another 
means of Emphasis (see p. 291) would be Contrast. 
Black stands out far more emphatically if there is a 
background of white. Freedom is far more emphati- 
cally described if there is the contrast of slavery ; and 
so on. And there are many other means of Emphasis- 
ing, which will be shown in their proper place (p. 281). 
The above will be sufficient for the present purpose. 
The lesson surely is that to emphasise, in this way, an 
Idea which is felt to be important, is not an automatic 
process to most people ; it is not done instinctively, and 
by the light of nature. They may feel that the Idea 
ought to be Emphasised, but they do not know the 
means. And they obviously ought to practise this art 
of Emphasising by itself, as a separate Exercise, 
centring and focussing their attention on this alone. 

My method will therefore be to take each part of the 
process of Essay-Writing or Speaking, since it is a com- 
plicated process, and to see how each of the parts can 
be mastered by itself. I shall go upon the principle 
upon which the Romans went in their conquests, viz. 
6 DIVIDE ET niPERxY ', ' Isolate what you have to master, 
and master it part by part'. And, besides this, make 
certain of what you have already mastered, before you 
proceed to fresh attacks. 

For I do not think that the reason why so many people 
fail to write good Essays or to make good Speeches 
is so much that they are barren of Ideas, or that their 
Grammar is bad, or even that their Expression is very 
bad ; I think their chief fault is that they try to do all at 



xiv PREFACE 

once that of which they cannot yet do any single part well, 
even by itself. I often noticed that most Candidates in 
Examinations used to begin to write their Essays at 
once. They never realised that their minds were there- 
by being distracted and divided among many different 
processes, each of which is particularly hard even when 
taken alone. For all at once their minds are being 
called upon to Collect Ideas, to Select and decide which 
are important, etc., to Arrange the Selected Ideas, and 
to Express them. To try all this as a single action is 
most extraordinarily unscientific, even if a few brilliant 
geniuses here and there have succeeded in the attempt. 

As I said above, few things are more lamentable than 
the attempts of many good Writers to say what good 
Writing is. It helps the learner very little to be told 
that good Writing can be known by its indefinable 
charm ! The real truth is that good Writers seldom 
know how it is that they write well : they have not 
analysed the Art of Writing. With myself it has been 
very different. I have had to teach myself most of what 
I know. At School, there were few who wrote worse 
Essays than I did. Since then I have learnt a great 
deal from various books, and have learnt a great deal 
more by experiments, and by attempts at teaching 
others. 

The process by which I arrived at the conclusions 
which are given in this Book might be interesting to 
the reader. 

I first of all began with Games, and at Games I failed 
to improve, in spite of training and practice. Even- 



PREFACE xv 

tually I discovered the reason why, and I found that it 
would be almost impossible to improve without study- 
ing a Game part by part. I found that what I had 
considered to be a simple action was really an action 
consisting of perhaps ten or fifteen parts ; * all those 
parts I now began to master separately, and I improved 
far more than I had thought possible. It then occurred 
to me that this same Method might be applied to 
the learning and teaching of other things besides 
Games : I tried to apply it to various subjects, e.g. 
History, and Philology. The different Principles, by 
which each part might be mastered, I have attempted to 
work out by making experiments, by reading Books, 
by listening to advice, and by trying to teach and 
lecture, and by writing down my ideas on paper and 
taking notes of the different results from time to time. 

Essay-writing is one of the last things which I have 
tried to teach at Cambridge, and it only occurred to me 
to do so when I saw what a great need there was for 
some such teaching. For here every Examination now 
has an Essay in it. At Oxford the Essay has been 
insisted on for a longer period. 

I found that the books on the subject were mostly by 
geniuses and not by patient plodders like myself; not 
only were they far too detailed to begin with, but they 
did not go to the root of the matter. I found also 
that those who were supposed to teach the subject would 
occasionally ask, ' How can one set about teaching 
Essays ? ' Indeed I once heard a well-known Essay - 

* See "Lessons in Lawn Tennis" (Upcott Gill). 



■xvi PREFACE 

writer say that Essay-Writing could not possibly be 
taught; for he said he himself had tried to teach it. 
And of course it is probably true that perfect Essay- 
Writing cannot be entirely taught. But it occurred to 
me that in a subject like this there must be some way 
of improving people, not indeed up to the point of per- 
fection, but yet considerably. 

I therefore tried to divide the subject into its various 
parts, asking myself what an Essay-writer ought to do 
first of all. what should be the first part that he should 
attack ; and it occurred to me that the Collection of 
Ideas or Headings should come first, somewhat as in 
the house the list of rooms should come first. Then 
these Ideas should be examined, so that the important 
Ideas might be selected, and the rest of the Scheme 
should be made, including the Sub-Headings to these 
Main Headings. The Ideas should be Arranged, and a 
general Outline of the Essay should be made, some- 
what as one would make an outline of a Drawing or of 
a Map, before one proceeded to fill in the details. 

But I found that to Collect the Ideas was by no 
means a simple task. The English education does not 
encourage learners to think. They are generally told to 
reproduce the ideas of others, and, unless the question 
comes straight out of the Text-book, they often find 
themselves quite unable to answer it. On examining 
the Essays of various pupils I found that they had been 
Collecting together in their Essays only half the facts 
or illustrations which they really knew all the time. It 
became then a problem, ' How could the Headings for 



PREFACE xvii 

an Essay be Collected?' And I began to make various 
Lists which might apply to many kinds or types of Essays. 
These Lists will be found e.g. on pages 83 and 92. I 
have called them ' General Lists'. If the reader, for 
instance, had to give a survey of England as it is to- 
day, he would find it very hard to think of Headings ;; 
but if he had a General List of Headings, if he had 
before him all the chief topics, then he would find it 
very fairly easy to Select what he wanted. So I made 
a certain number of general Lists which would apply 
to most Essays. 

Then came the difficulty of learning these Lists, and' 
to meet this I have suggested that, when once the Lists 
have been mastered and understood, they might be 
learnt by means of Rhymes. 

The process of Arranging these Headings I also 
found very difficult, and my chief help was to get hold 
of two or three different Principles, which will be 
explained on page 172 foil., and to use the Card- 
System (p. 186). 

But ' Style ' was the hardest part of all. I knew that 
certain Writers were good Writers, and had a good 
Style ; but I found it extraordinarily hard to analyse 
that Style Why should such-and-such a piece be good 
English and good Style, and another piece quite the 
reverse? The greatest help here (see p. 212) I got from 
the New Testament. 

I thus arrived at the results which I give in this 
Book. And it seemed to me a great advantage, in a 
complex subject like this, to divide it into its component 



xviii PREFACE 

parts, and then to see how each part can be practised 
by itself, and how each mistake can be analysed by the 
learner, for himself, and can then be corrected. This 
appears to me to be the only scientific way of teaching 
the average learner. It is of little use to show him the 
perfect model without analysing it, and making him see 
exactly where it differs from the imperfect attempt. 
It follows therefore that the Book is not intended 
for the genius, who does the whole thing correctly 
as a whole, and not only correctly but also without 
conscious effort. That is to say, it is not for him unless 
he wishes to teach others. If he does wish to teach 
others, then even he might find this Book of some 
help. For instance, if a learner says to him ' How 
shall I emphasise this idea?', the genius -writer will 
probably be entirely at a loss : he will be unable to 
understand the state of mind of anyone who feels a 
difficulty here. He himself does the thing unconsciously 
and automatically : he ' knoweth not how '. 

The Book is meant for those who themselves intend 
to write Books, either in Prose or in Poetry, or Articles, 
or Essays, or who wish to prepare Speeches of various 
kinds (whether they be after-dinner Speeches, or 
Speeches in the House, or at Meetings, or at Debates), 
or Lectures, or Sermons. Even Conversation and 
ordinary Letters will be helped by the method which 
I outline. For Examiners, for Teachers, for Learners, 
for Critics, I believe the suggestions may be of value. 
There are a great many, for instance, who are under 
the delusion that it is ' economy ' to write everything 



PREFACE xix 

huddled together on a small piece of paper ; a good 
deal of failure in Writing is due to this false economy. 
Paper is becoming cheaper and cheaper, and, the more 
liberally it is used, the better the results are likely 
to be. 

Above all, the Book is intended for beginners, for 
average people, and for those who are below the 
average. As I have meant it to suit all readers, 
I have approached the same idea from many points 
of view. For instance, when I have treated of Com- 
parisons, I have not only treated them under various 
Headings, e.g. under ' the means of Interesting the 
readers ', ' the means of making a thing Clear ', or 
' the means of introducing Variety ', or ' the means of 
Emphasising ', etc., under all of which Headings Com- 
parisons should come ; but I have also collected, in a 
special Chapter on Comparisons, these various functions 
which are theirs. Besides this, I have suggested special 
Exercises on Comparisons, and have called attention to 
some of the commonest Faults with respect to them. 

I believe that, if the Principles of Learning this 
subject are once mastered, they will be found useful 
in learning almost any other subject. I have certainly 
found them of great value in helping the Memory, 
and in helping the teaching of History, Philology, 
Prose-Compositions, Verse-Compositions, and numerous 
other subjects. If this is so in reality, it would be a 
great help for teaching and learning generally, and it 
would show that many (if not all) subjects can to 
some extent be learnt and taught according to a single 



xx PREFACE 

method ; in which method not the least important factor 
would be the practising of the various processes singly, 
so that the whole attention may be concentrated and 
focussed on each one process independently. 

I should like to express here my thanks for the great 
care which has been taken in the printing of this work. 
Of course some errors must have escaped notice, and 
I shall be glad to have them pointed out. In fact, any 
suggestions will be very welcome. 

King's College, Cambridge 1899. 



Part I. 






PART I. INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY. 



[When the Book is being read for the first time. 
Chapter IV. might be omitted.] 

CHAPTERS PAGE 

I. Advantages of being Able to Write 

and Speak Well . ... 3 

II. Common Types of Subjects fop. Compositions 9 

III. The Choice of a Subject . . 13 

IV. Differences between Various Classes 

of Compositions . . 16 

V. Different Ways of Learning . 23 

VI. Summary of the Book, with a Rhyme . . 27 

VII. General Principles of Composition . . 57 
VIII. Difficulties and Faults in Composition, 

with a Sample Schoolboy-Essay (Analysed) 44 

IX. Aims and Motives of Writers and Speakers . 48 



CHAPTER I. ADVANTAGES OF BEING ABLE 
TO WRITE AND SPEAK WELL. 



FOR the advantages of preparing Compositions and 
Speeches by the system suggested in this Book, I must 
refer to Chapter LXXIV. (p. 397). Here I shall speak 
chiefly of the general advantages of being able to 
Write well and to Speak well. 

One of the tendencies of English education is to 
make the learner absorb a number of facts without 
ever thinking over them or using them. Now the 
preparing of Compositions and Speeches should make 
him think over and review his mental stock-in-trade 
from time to time, and should encourage him to add 
to this stock, that is, to read, listen, ask questions, and 
meditate. It should also give him greater activity in 
putting his stock-in-trade to some use : otherwise the 
masses of materials might either lie uncultivated, or 
might at any rate be very difficult to utilise. 

Besides this, the preparing of Compositions and 
Speeches should encourage business-like qualities : not 
only should it train people into the habit of going 
straight to the point, but in many ways it should save 
time and exertion. Time and exertion are not abso- 
lutely the same as money, but still he who saves time 
and saves exertion has more chance of saving and 
making money. 

3 



4 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

Another faculty which is very much wanting in 
England is the faculty of speaking well and readily 
and without nervousness. In many American Schools, 
the children are taught to make speeches at a moment's 
notice. In England, people are not wont to have their 
Ideas ready collected or ready arranged, and, when 
suddenly called upon to speak, they have to give most 
of their attention to the collecting and arranging of the 
Ideas ; the result of it is that they often express these 
Ideas not only without Rhythm, but even without 
Grammar. For, if they have to think of what they 
are to say, viz. the Subject-Matter, they cannot possibly 
give their full attention to how they are to say it, viz. 
the Expression and Style. 

Essay-writing and Speaking, so far as the actual 
Writing and Speaking are concerned, will force students 
to give definite shape to their Ideas : how little we can 
tell whether we really understand a given Idea or not, 
until we have tried to put it in words, to describe it 
to someone else. 

The immediate advantages of being able to write 
Books, etc., are almost too obvious to need mention. 
With regard to the writing of Books in modern times, 
two considerations might be passed by unless attention 
were called to them. In the first place, there is far 
more division of labour in the writing of Books : so 
that, even if a person cannot write a whole Book, that 
person may nevertheless be able to do some part of 
the work. At present we hear chiefly of Index-Makers 
and of people who prepare Summaries, but one day we 
may find the work of Book-writing subdivided to such 
an extent that some people will be able to Collect 
Ideas, other people will be able to Arrange them, and 



ADVANTAGES OF WRITING WELL 5 

other people will Express them in good language. 
Others again will Criticise, and will polish up the work 
as a complete whole. 

The second consideration is that, if a person cannot 
write a Book, at any rate he or she may be able to 
write an Article ; for day by day Articles are becoming 
more common than Books. Essays (see the Preface) 
have lately been introduced universally into Cambridge 
Examinations, and more and more attention is being 
paid to them. But, quite apart from this ' Scholastic ' 
movement, and the increase of Essay-writing in Schools, 
the number of Magazines is growing larger every year, 
and those who can write Articles for them are in a 
position to earn quite a large income. The Articles 
are paid for at different rates, but, allowing about 
2 or 3 guineas for an ordinary Article of 3000 words, 
the reader can easily see how many Articles it would 
take to make an income of, say, two hundred and fifty 
a year; it would mean about 80 to 120 Articles. If a 
Writer of fair ability practised each part of the art of 
Essay-writing quite separately, then he should soon be 
able to write an ordinary Article in a single day. 

Yet another point is to be noticed. Those who can- 
not write whole Articles can at least write Paragraphs. 
The number of Newspapers is increasing, and every 
Newspaper wants many Paragraphs on many topics. 
He who practises Collecting and Arranging and Ex- 
pressing Ideas can write a readable and interesting 
Paragraph in a very few minutes. Such papers as the 
* Daily Mail " pay well for interesting Paragraphs, and 
here again quite a respectable income might be earned. 

But the preparing of Essays, Speeches, etc., should 
have far more widely reaching effects than these. Perhaps 



6 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

as much as anything else it should tend to encourage 
honesty and fairness and open-mindedness. Until a 
person prepares an Essay or Speech with a view to 
showing it or imparting it to others, he probably does 
not realise a quarter of the Ideas which the subject 
may suggest. When, however, he has forced himself to 
detect fallacies in his own views, then his power of 
seeing both sides of a question and, with an impartial 
and unbiassed candour, showing them to others also, 
will grow almost beyond belief. By exposing fallacies, 
he will develope his reasoning powers wonderfully. 

This does not merely affect arguments and writings : 
it affects the whole of life. One is perpetually being 
brought face to face with some custom, and, unless one 
has practised fair and open reasoning, and has learnt to 
see both sides of a question, one is apt to follow blindly 
as a slave of Custom, and so to be doing something 
altogether wrong, even when this ' something ' be in- 
jurious or dishonest. The man who has discussed all 
kinds of questions with himself, not as a partisan, but as 
a searcher after truth (as the Essayist should be), will 
not tamely allow himself to obey others implicitly : his 
w r hole life will be more and more guided by Reason, 
and less and less by Custom. 

And this does not concern himself alone : he will be 
able not only to judge better for himself, but also to 
help others to judge better for themselves. 

This will be especially the case in Teaching. In fact, 
we might say that Teaching is quite impossible unless 
the Teacher has those qualities and advantages which 
should come from the preparing of Essays and Speeches. 
Among such qualities would be pi'ompt Reasoning and 
the rapid Collection of Ideas (which will encourage and 



ADVANTAGES OF SPEAKING WELL 7 

will in turn be helped by wide reading and careful 
thought and discussion), the Selecting and ' Proportion- 
ing' of Ideas (which will force the Writer to ask 
himself what is important and what is not). Then 
again there will be the Arranging of Ideas, and the 
Connecting of one Idea with another, and this will 
be a great help for the Memory. Besides this, the 
Ideas and their Expression will become far clearer ; 
and a person will be able almost unconsciously to think 
of a good Comparison or Contrast when he wishes 
to explain something or to Emphasise it. In working 
out these Comparisons and Contrasts, he cannot fail 
to increase his SympatJiy with the readers and with 
people in general ; for he will be bound to ask himself 
' What interests the reader ? ' and ' What Motives can 
I appeal to ? ' 

This power of interesting others, and of persuading 
them and convincing them, is essential to Teaching 
in the wider sense, i.e. influencing others by anything 
that we say. 

One or two details may be mentioned in conclusion. 

The Practice of Rhythm must have some effect upon 
the mind itself, though the exact effect is not yet 
known ; but a quality which it may perhaps help con- 
siderably is general Neatness. 

So far we have spoken especially of the Effects upon 
the intellect and character, but there still remains one 
more effect, namely, the effect it has in giving pleasure 
to others as well as to oneself. Among the greatest 
of pleasures, and among the purest, is that of helping 
others ; and, quite apart from this, a vast deal of 
pleasure can come from the mere reading of a number 
of good Ideas well arranged and well expressed. 



8 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

The satisfaction which such a piece of reading may 
give both to the Writer and to the reader must not 
be left out of account. It is only recently that people 
have investigated the effect of pleasurable feelings 
upon the whole body and upon its power for work ; 
and nowadays, before subjects are recommended for 
study, it ought first to be asked whether these subjects 
are likely to be not only interesting but also pleasant. 
With regard to Essay-Writing and Speaking, one may 
safely say that, when once the first drudgery is over, 
they are certain to be both interesting and pleasant. 

. And, however good may be the effects of Writing 
well and Speaking well, they will become still better 
if these arts are learnt and practised in the right way 
instead of being left • to get themselves taught '. 



CHAPTER II. COMMON TYPES OF SUBJECTS 
FOR COMPOSITIONS. 



I SHALL here mention and give examples of only one 
or two of the commonest types of Essay-Subjects : the 
reader can easily add other examples and other types 
from his own experience or imagination. 

I. 

1. A very usual type of subject is that w r hich in- 
volves as it were .a bird's-eye view of things in general. 
' Rome under the Empire ', or ' London to-day ', or a 
Comparison between the two, would be specimens. 
The Writer is at a loss to know what to mention 
and what to omit : if he only had a complete List of 
Headings, then he would be better able to select. This 
Essay, then, may be called a Period-Essay, as it in- 
volves an all-round review of a Period (e.g. its Govern- 
ment, Religion, Education, and Commerce). See p. 83. 

2. But an all-round review of a Period is needed for 
many other Essay-Subjects besides this. ' The Results 
of Democracy (e.g. in England)', or, in fact, the Results 
of many things, need this review also. Otherwise, how 
can we tell -where Democracy's Results are to be looked 
for, or what they are ? The Results may extend to all 
sorts of spheres, and, unless we do review the Period, 
we shall be in danger of passing by some sphere of the 
very greatest importance. 

9 



io INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

3. ' The Causes of England's Success ' will also need 
this all-round review. For what sphere may not have 
had its influence (e.g. Geography, Government, Religion, 
or Commerce)? And, unless we look everywhere, we 
shall almost certainly omit some powerful Cause. 

So Causes of events, or of phenomena, as a rule de- 
mand the Period-Headings also. 

4. And this will apply also to Essays on Hindrances. 
'What are the Obstacles to a union with America 
(Russia, France, etc.) ? ' 

So far, then, these Headings are required for an 
Essay on a Period, for an Essay on two or more 
Periods compared and contrasted, for an Essay on 
Results, and for an Essay on Causes, or on Hindrances. 
Is there any other subject where they are required ? 

5. ' The Sphere of Government-control ' (what it is 
and what it should be) : this, again, needs the List of 
Headings. ' Does Government control, or ought it to 
control, a, b, c, d, . . . ? ' and so on : those are the 
questions which we must answer. 

6. ' War\ 'Colonisation', 'Slavery' — these are topics 
often set in Essay- papers. How shall we deal with 
words so vague ? Well here again we must call the 
Period-Headings into play w T hen we consider Causes, 
Hindrances, and Effects : though other Headings are 
needed also, as we shall see directly. 

7. ' Ignorance is bliss ' : this may be called the 
'Proverb-Essay', or the Dictum-Essay. But what kind 
of ' Ignorance ' is meant ? Ignorance in Government, 
in Religion, or in Commerce? All these departments 
of life, and many others, will furnish us with materials 
and examples for or against the Dictum. What other 
departments? Those which are in the Period-Headings. 



COMMON TYPES OF SUBJECTS n 

8. A Person is to be the theme? Then we must 
consider (among other things) what caused him to 
be as he was, what hindered him, what Effects he 
produced, and what his Sphere of activity was. And 
here once more we need to pass the Headings in quick 
review before us. 

For the other Headings needed for such an Essay, 
see below (p. 92). 

9. An Essay on Tennyson, or some Author. Here, 
at last, we seem to be free. But here we are dealing 
with a Person, and we need to review his Period, if 
we would get at the Causes and Hindrances and 
Effects. And then, what did he write about? Shall 
we not need the Period-Headings here also? Was 
it about Virtue, or Intellect, or Religion, or what? 

Thus all the above Essays might be classed together 
as involving a survey of the departments of life, i.e. as 
involving a survey of what we call the Period- Headings. 
But this is not all that they involve. 

The Essay on an Author would have these Headings, 
in so far as the Author is considered as a Person. 
His Works demand them too : the Instances (i.e. a List 
of his Works), Causes and Hindrances, Description, 
Effects, etc., must all be considered. 



II. 

a. When we have an Essay on a wide subject like 
' Democracy \ or ' Colonisation ', or ' War ', we need 
another set of Headings as well. These are given 
on p. 92, and include ' Concrete Instances ', ' Causes ', 
1 Hindrances ', ' Description ', and ' Effects '. We should 
also have ' Evidences ', ' Comparisons ', and ' Contrasts \ 



12 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

The 'Description' itself has many 'Sub-Headings', 
as we shall see on p. 92. 

These might be called General Essay-Headings : and 
almost every Essay involves the use of them. 

6. The Essay on a Person (e.g. Napoleon) would 
include Instances (i.e. the events of his life), Causes 
and Hindrances of his development, Description of 
Character, Sphere of Activity, etc. (see p. 97), Effects, 
and so on. 

For other subjects, the reader is referred to such 
Books as ' Pros and Cons ' (Swan Sonnenschein), and 
to p. 133 (below). 

The common types, therefore, though at first sight 
they may seem to be very numerous, can mostly be 
classed together under the Formula of ' Essays which 
require some or many or most of the Period- Headings, 
and some or many or most of the General Essay-Head- 
ings (Instances, Causes, Effects, etc.)'. 

Lighter Articles and Speeches will often bring into 
play these General Essay-Headings (p. 92), and may 
even be much improved by a rapid glance through the 
Period-Headings (p. 83). But as a rule these, together 
with Descriptions (e.g. of scenery), will not require such 
Lists. There will not be the same need to search for 
the Ideas themselves : the problem will generally be 
how to Select, Arrange, and Express Ideas. 



CHAPTER III. THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT. 



As I have said elsewhere, a Choice of subjects is not 
always allowed to learners, who are often all told to 
write an Essay on one set Subject, whether they know 
anything about it or not. ' In such a case Choice is out 
of the question. It may be suggested to Teachers that 
they should allow a Choice wherever it is possible. 
Either they might allow a Choice of one out of four 
subjects, or they might allow an absolutely free Choice 
within certain limits. I have found a very good plan 
to be to set three or four subjects of various kinds, 
and to ask for Schemes of all the subjects, and for any 
single subject as an Essay also. 

One high authority says emphatically that, whenever 
there is a Choice of subjects, the Essayist should 
choose the one about which he already knows least. 
This is singularly bad advice for Examination purposes. 
Far better advice would be, " Choose and practise your 
weakest subjects on ordinary occasions, but in Exami- 
nations, where a great deal may depend upon success, 
choose the subject which you can do best". In the 
same way, in Games, I should recommend anyone to 
practise his weakest strokes in Practice-Games, etc., 
but in Matches to use his best strokes. 

Apart from this, it may often be useful to choose 
that subject which is not only interesting at the 
13 



14 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

present moment, but which might be useful in after-life, 
according to the career to which one is looking forward. 

The Interest of the Writer must make a great deal 
of difference to his Essay or Speech, and it is astonish- 
ing that Schoolmasters so seldom practise boys in Essay- 
Writing or Speaking on subjects about which they 
are really keen. I know of one small School where 
a general paper is set, for very short Essays, and, out 
of about fifteen questions, there is scarcely one in which 
nearly all the boys would not feel interested. The 
subjects are Games, Bicycling, Stamp-collecting, in 
fact almost anything which boys care about. But 
this School is an exception. There is generally a 
vague idea that such things are 'trivial' or 'frivolous'. 
How little do those who say such things understand 
the Schoolboy's mind. A game of Football 'frivolous' ! 
I dread to think of what our Nation would be like if 
for our Games we substituted the ponderous Gymnastic 
system, the "March at the word of command". There 
can be no harm in setting these subjects, and, so far as 
Expression is concerned, they are better practice than 
anything else, because the Essay-Writer or Speaker has 
to devote less of his attention to the thinking out of the 
Ideas themselves. He understands them better, that is 
to say if he is really a boy. 

Besides this, it is also necessary to choose a subject 
in which you can interest the readers or hearers. It 
is not enough that the subject should interest the 
Writer or Speaker. It is for this reason that many 
Books and Articles are rejected by Publishers and 
Editors. The subjects are thought either to be non- 
popular or at any rate to have been treated in a 
non-popular manner. 



THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT 15 

In addition to the Choice of a subject, there is also 
the Choice of treatment: the same subject, treated in 
a different way, may be (to all intents and purposes) 
a new subject. For this, see Originality (p. 219). The 
Writer might first consider a subject (e.g. Ancient 
Slavery) generally, by the General Headings on p. 92 ; 
then he might consider some one Heading as an Essay 
all by itself, e.g. Results (good and bad, for the Slaves 
and for others), or Comparisons and Contrasts (with 
modern Servants, etc.). 

To sum up, then : in so far as you can, choose such a 
subject, and such a way of treating it, as shall interest 
not only yourself but also your audience. 



CHAPTER IV. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 
VARIOUS CLASSES OF 
COMPOSITIONS. 



Note. — This Chapter may be omitted (or left till the end) 
when the Book is being read for the first time. 

In this Book I have tried to treat the different classes 
of Compositions and Speeches together, i.e. to give 
advice which may apply to all of them collectively. But 
there is a great deal which can only apply to some one 
branch of Composition by itself. For instance, Chapter 
LXXIII. will only apply to Letter- writing. 

The differences between Books and Letters, to take 
the two extremes, are very great ; and yet the classes 
pass into one another by almost imperceptible stages. 
It is not a great step from the Book to the long Essay, 
from the long Essay to the short and lighter Essay, 
from the lighter Essay to the still lighter Article, from 
the Article to the serious Letter, and from the serious 
Letter to the ordinary Letter. 

Again, with regard to Speaking, it is not a great step 
from the series of Lectures (which may correspond to 
the single Book), to the single Lecture or Speech, and 
from that, through the Debate, to the ordinary Con- 
versation. 

But these various classes of Writings and Speeches 
may differ very considerably from one another, for in- 
stance in their Arrangement of Ideas. In a Speech, 
16 



VARIOUS CLASSES OF COMPOSITION 17 

especially before a popular audience, there must be so 
much more variety, so much more humour, and so much 
more repetition, than in a serious Lecture to a number 
of specialists. 

A grea£ deal will depend on the length of the Compo- 
sition, and a great deal on who the readers or hearers 
are. Of course it is generally safest to address the 
stupidest, with occasional words here and there for 
those who are more intelligent, (pcovaevra guveroio-i. The 
Author, again, may be addressing simply the people of 
his own times or the people of future times as well, and 
he may be addressing only his hearers or readers or 
the very severest critics as well. Much also will 
depend on his Aim or Aims (see p. 48), and upon 
whether he wishes to treat the subject seriously or 
lightly. For it must be remembered that a serious 
method of treatment is not always suited to a serious 
subject. A Paper like " Punch" has taught many lessons 
which rabid fanatics have utterly failed to teach. 

Then again, an Essay* or Speech may be what is 
called Partisan-Work, or it may be what might be 
called Fair-Play for both sides. 

A great deal more than one would think will depend 
on whether the Composition is to be Spoken or' Written*, 
and, if ' Written ', whether it will be read in Writing or 
in Type-writing or in Printing. And even the kind of 
Writing or Type- writing or Printing may be a very 
considerable consideration. 

One difference between Writing and Speaking I have 

* An Essay has been defined as an attempt, a tentative suggestion, 
rather than a complete treatise. Such was its early sense, and many 
Essays and Articles would still rank as tentative ; but a large number are 
far more than this— they are more or less exhaustive monographs. 
C 



18 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

never yet seen mentioned, except in reference to Poetry: 
it is that Writing is hampered by lines. The eye has to 
pass from the end of one line to the beginning of the 
next, and the breaks and delays, though inappreciable 
as individual breaks and delays, are in their sum-total 
stupendous. For the delays generally involve a break 
in the thought itself — a break inconceivably minute, yet 
(like the Atom of the Atomic Theory) none the less 
real and actual. 

For many of the other characteristics of Speaking 
as opposed to Writing, I must refer to p. 384. Here I 
need only allude to one or two more of them. 

If a Speech or Composition is to be spoken and heard, 
then there is a chance of Illustrations from the sur- 
roundings, or from Maps or Diagrams, or by some other 
means (for instance, Plans drawn on a Black-board). But, 
even with these helps, what is Spoken must be made 
very much clearer than what is Written, for this reason. 
The listener who does not understand a thing cannot 
possibly turn back, as the reader can, and go through 
the sentence over again. If the sentence is not under- 
stood directly it is said, either it will not be understood 
at all, or the hearer, in puzzling it out, will lose the 
sentences which immediately follow. Indeed he may 
lose the whole thread. 

Now, as it is hard to be sure that any given sentence 
will be clear to all or even to most of the hearers, 
it will often be safer to repeat the Idea, to approach 
it from different points of view (see p. 181), and not to 
try to pack as many Ideas as possible into as small a 
Composition as possible, as Books and Articles often do, 
and do quite rightly; one will have to Repeat (see p. 270), 
and (see pp. 281, 291) to give Comparisons a?id Contrasts. 



VARIOUS CLASSES OF COMPOSITION 19 

This will serve another purpose besides ensuring 
Clearness. It will Emphasise the important Ideas, and 
it will keep up the Interest. 

But on the other hand, in spite of the Repetitions 
and Comparisons and Contrasts etc., the Spoken Com- 
position should be shorter than the Written Composition. 
The reader can put aside a Book when he is tired, 
saying to himself " I will finish it off some other time " ; 
but the hearer cannot do this ; and thousands of clergy- 
men whose Sermon might be mastered if it were in 
print, and if people could plod through it a little bit 
at a time, can only succeed in keeping the attention of 
their hearers for a quarter of an hour at a time ; the 
other quarter of an hour or more is worse than useless : 
it is exasperating. 

Since, therefore, that which is Spoken must have 
more Repetition and Variety, and must be shorter, 
than that which is Written (and which can therefore 
be studied at leisure), that which is Spoken must 
of necessity have fewer Ideas. 

In Composition, the nearest thing to Speaking is 
Letter-writing ; ordinary Letters one seldom reads more 
than once. Ordinary Letters, then, must be almost 
as clear and unmistakable as Speeches. 

It is this need of absolute Clearness which makes 
Speaking of inestimable value for Essay- Writing. There 
are a great many Teachers who do too much ' Reading' 
and too little Speaking. I have known Lecturers who 
have practically never Spoken (except in the sense of 
reading out Lectures from Notes) ; they have generally 
failed as Lecturers. 

At the beginning of Essay- Writing one should try 
to Write something which can be both heard and read : 



20 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

this is a very safe rule. For a Writer is apt to be 
obscure and dull, and a Speaker is apt to be diffuse 
and careless, relying too much on gesture, stress, and 
tone. 

In all the different classes of Composition, a good 
many conditions have to be taken into account. First 
of all, come the place and the surroundings — there is a 
difference between Speaking in a building and Speaking 
in the open air, between Speaking where Illustrations 
are ready to hand and Speaking where there is no 
chance of Illustrations. It is, by the way, a most 
singular thing that open-air preachers so seldom make 
any allusions to their surroundings : they do not realise 
(as Jesus did) that the things which can be seen around 
them ought to be used as Comparisons and Contrasts. 

The time also has to be taken into account, and, in 
Writing, the number of words. The usual number of 
words for an Article in a Review will be three thousand. 

The subject also will make a great deal of difference, 
and besides this the amount of work which has been 
already done on the subject by others. 

A Debate again will be quite different from any 
other form of Composition, and will require more 
readiness. 

We may now briefly summarise the different classes 
of Compositions, and the reader will see for himself 
that there must be many varieties in the method of 
treatment, although a number of general rules apply 
to all of them alike, such as " Collect the Headings ; 
then Select some ; then Underline the important Head- 
ings ; then Arrange ; then Express ; and lastly put 
aside, and Revise, and read out loud, so as to correct 
the Rhythm." 



VARIOUS CLASSES OF COMPOSITION 21- 

First of all will come the Book. The Summary of 
the Book may correspond very closely to an Essay 
or an Article. Or the Essay or Article may be com- 
pared with a Section of the Book, or with a Chapter 
of the Book. Here then we have a Book and an Essay, 
and we see what their relation is : a Book may be 
like a long Essay, or like a number of Essays on one 
subject. 

Both the Book and the Essay will have Paragraphs ; 
and Paragraphs themselves can form a separate class of 
Composition, as an Editor of a Newspaper or Magazine 
knows better than anyone. 

A Paragraph again consists of Sentences, and even 
a Sentence may be a separate form of Composition. 
And the Sentence itself may consist of Clauses, and 
these Clauses will consist of Words. 

Now of all the above Compositions, whether they be 
Books or Essays or Articles or Paragraphs, the more 
one divides up and splits up (within certain limits), the 
clearer the work is likely to be. As a model of a bad 
Writer in this respect we may take Professor Freeman, 
whose Paragraphs last sometimes for a page and a half, 
or even for several pages. Milton, in his History of 
England, is even worse. 

A Letter differs from the above Compositions in 
certain respects, although it resembles them in others ; 
it also should be subdivided into Paragraphs, and a 
new subject should begin a new Paragraph. See further 
p. 390 foil. 

As to Speeches, Lectures, Sermons, etc., a serious or 
long Speech or Lecture or Sermon may be compared 
with the Summary of a Book, or with a Section or 
Chapter of a Book, or with an Essay or Article. 



22 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

Supposing we had a Debate, we might compare the 
Debate to a Section or Chapter of a Book (or to an 
Essay) which answered or supported a Section or 
Chapter of another Book (or another Essay). 

With a Paragraph, in Writing, we may compare some 
of the Speeches which are made after dinner, or (by 
verbose individuals) in the course of an ordinary Con- 
versation. As a rule, however, our Speaking takes the 
form of Conversation, i.e. we Speak in Sentences rather 
than in Paragraphs. In Literature this is not nearly 
so common as might be desired ; a great deal can be 
learnt from Dialogues or Conversations, since people 
would read them as a change from the stereotyped 
Essay. 



CHAPTER V. DIFFERENT WAYS 
OF LEARNING. 



Of the different ways of practising the art of Teaching 
and Learning, and of practising Composition and Speak- 
ing I shall treat later on (in Chapters LXIV.-LXXL). 
Here I wish to speak rather more about the general 
Principles of the art of Learning anything. 

There are numbers of ways of Learning, and there 
are numbers of Teachers or Theorists who understand 
one way only. Some say we can only learn to do 
a thing by doing it ; others say we can only learn to 
do a thing by reading Books on the subject ; and so 
on. But, as a matter of fact, no one single method 
of Learning can be sufficient for anyone unless he be 
a genius. This, then, is the first fallacy which we 
expose, that there is only one way of Learning, and 
that all other ways are useless. 

A second fallacy is that Learning is merely sucking- 
in, as it were, that is to say merely reading or listening ; 
true Learning is a great deal besides this. 

The Learner must not only suck-in and absorb, but 
must absorb with an open mind. Open-mindedness is 
a quality sadly undeveloped in England, whereas in 
America it is encouraged with great care. The Learner, 
then, should listen or read with an open mind, studying 
not only in order to absorb but also in order to under- 
stand thoroughly, and to criticise and test, and finally to 
23 



24 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

adopt or reject according to the results. Afterwards 
he should make a record (see p. 354) of what he has 
learnt, and should meditate over it. He should ask 
about the various difficulties or doubtful problems, con- 
sulting not only actual people, but also Books and 
Dictionaries, which will tell him what he wants, perhaps 
more quickly, but anyhow more patiently. 

And not only should he absorb, and think over, and 
criticise what he has listened to and what he has read, 
but he should also apply it and put it into practice in 
the right way. 

He should ask for criticism from others ; but, if he 
is unwilling or unable to do this, he should at any rate 
criticise himself, either by looking at his work after an 
interval, or by comparing it with some pattern. 

But of all methods of Learning none is better than 
the attempt to teach others : of this I shall speak 
below. 

It is important to learn as much and at the same 
time as little as possible. Do not learn twenty 
different instances all by themselves, if you can learn 
one single instance and the principles which it illus- 
trates, and then apply these principles to other instances 
also. For example, in Essay- Writing, the Writer will 
find that, in treating the Ideas or Headings, certain 
principles such as Clearness, Appropriateness, Variety, 
Connexion, and Proportion, all have to be considered. 
A good model would show him all these principles. 
He will find that these same principles will apply to 
the Expression of Ideas. He will therefore be saving 
time if he learns them thoroughly once for all, and 
does not have to learn them twice. 

A few details about Learning may be suggested here- 



DIFFERENT WAYS OF LEARNING 25 

1. The Attention should be concentrated on the 
subject, and this needs an exertion of the will. This 
in its turn must be much easier for you if you enjoy 
good health, and if you take an interest in the subject, 
and if you can introduce some Variety into it (see 
p. 251). 

2. Of course you must also understand the subject 
and realise it, and a great help to this will be to begin 
with zvhat is known and familiar and easy, and to pro- 
ceed from this to what is unknown and less familiar and 
2nd more difficult. Comparisons and Contrasts will be 
a great aid. Indeed, without these a proper Interest in 
the subject, or even a proper understanding of the sub- 
ject, is almost impossible. 

3. Throughout the processes of Learning you should 
observe and make Notes. This applies equally whether 
you are Reading (p. 352) or whether you are Listen- 
ing (p« 35S). Throughout Learning you should ask 
Questions, either of yourself or of others (by word or by 
letter, or by consulting Books and Articles). 

4. You should also keep in your Memory what you 
have learnt, storing it partly in your mind, and partly 
in Notes and Note-books. 

5. What you have learnt you should not merely 
remember, but you should also think about and digest, 
and this is best done by putting the Ideas into practice, 
and by exercising yourself in the various departments 
of Essay-Writing, one by one ; e.g. see p. 361. 

6. Always invite Criticism ; and do not be afraid of 
criticising others. There is no reason to criticise them 
in public : you can keep your work in that depart- 
ment absolutely private, and it is generally better to 
do so. 



26 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

7. As to Teaching others, you can either actually 
teach them by words, or by Letters, Articles, etc., or 
you can teach them in imagination. If you imagined 
yourself to have an audience, or a Class of pupils, you 
would take more pains in the preparation than if 
you were preparing things merely for yourself. And, 
whether you are Writing or Speaking, the general 
principle to remember is that you must appeal, in 
nearly everything you say, to the very stupidest people 
possible. You may take it for granted, in Teaching, that, 
if the stupidest understand your meaning, then those 
who are less stupid will understand it also, and the 
clever cannot possibly fail to do so. 

Teaching is one of the best means of Learning, not 
only because it forces one to prepare one's work care- 
fully, and to be criticised whether one wishes it or not, 
but also because it gives one a sense of responsibility : 
it reminds one that one is no longer working for self 
alone. 

8. Throughout Teaching and Learning one should go 
over the old work constantly, and not merely put it 
aside and never look at it again ; and one should also 
use Cards (p. 186) or keep Note-books in which to write 
down from time to time, and to rearrange, various hints 
as to faults, improvements, and lines of research. 



CHAPTER VI. SUMMARY OF THE BOOK, 
WITH A RHYME. 



In this Chapter I shall try to summarise the main part 
of this work, so that those who have not the time or 
the inclination to go right through it may at any rate 
grasp the general plan of it, and may be able to refer 
to any particular Chapter or page for further informa- 
tion on any particular topic. 

After showing (on p. 3 foil.) how important and 
advantageous it is to be able to Write fairly well and to 
Speak fairly well, and after making one or two sugges- 
tions as to the Choice of a Subject, I shall point out 
(p. 37 foil.) some of the General Principles of Com- 
position, such as Appropriateness. What may be 
almost perfect in one Essay or in one Paragraph or in 
one Sentence may be quite out of place, quite bad, in 
another. Even a slang word may be the only possible 
word in a certain Context. 'Variety' (pp. 42, 251) 
will be another General Principle. 

Then, on p. 44 foil., I shall try to give the Chief 
Faults in Composition. The reader will see that the 
list is long : and that, if he merely tries to write whole 
Essays all at one c sitting ', he is little likely to escape 
them all. 

So the chief Difficulty in Composition, at least as it 
is usually attempted, is that a large number of hard 
27 



28 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

things have to be done all at once : in any one of these 
the Writer or Speaker is apt to be making mistakes. 
The difficulties would be much lessened if these things 
were collected together in a list, and if each Writer 
or Speaker found out which were his difficulties or 
faults, and if he then practised special Exercises in 
order to overcome them one by one. For I have tried 
to make it clear that difficulties are due not only to 
the complexity of the subject but still more to the 
attempts which have been made to teach it all together, 
as a single process. For there may be mistakes in one 
or many or even all of the following Headings — to 
select a few out of many : — Collection of Ideas or 
Headings, Selection, Underlining, Arranging, Illus- 
trating and Contrasting, Clearness, Brevity, Vigour and 
Emphasis, Interest, Variety, Rhythm, Grammar, Vocab- 
ulary, Punctuation, etc. It was hard to break the 
faggots when they were in a bundle, but it was easy 
to break them when they were taken one by one. 

Next (on p. 48) I have said a few words about the 
Aims and Motives of Writers and Speakers, for this 
has to be considered throughout Composition. Every- 
thing must be appropriate to the Aim of the Writer 
or Speaker, as well as appropriate to the subject, and 
to the readers or hearers. In fact, there would be 
almost innumerable ways of doing a Composition on 
one single subject, according to the different Aims and 
audiences that one had in view. 

In PART II., I treat of the Ideas and Headings, 
showing that these have to be Collected, Selected, 
Underlined, and Arranged, and that Illustrations and 
Contrasts have to be found, before one can begin to 
express them. Part II., therefore, has very little to do 



SUMMARY OF THE BOOK 29 

with Expression or Style, though it is impossible to 
avoid this branch altogether. 

On p. 57 foil. I give one or two bad Schemes of Essays, 
and then I point out what are the commonest faults 
in Schemes of Essays generally. These faults are 
faults in the Headings (for instance in their Arrange- 
ment) quite apart from their Expression. 

After this, on p. 60, I try to show what the Ideas and 
Headings ought to be, that is to say the ideal. For 
example, they ought to be complete (for the special 
purpose), they ought to be well proportioned, and 
appropriate to the Aim and subject and audience, 
they ought to be wholesome, interesting, and suggestive, 
and fair and unbiassed, and they, ought to have other 
good qualities besides. 

Then comes the great difficulty, namely, the Collection 
of Headings and Sub-Headings. And after general 
advice on this subject (see p. 6$), I have mentioned 
those Headings which are most often omitted, such as 
Evidences, Fallacies, Objections, Comparisons, Contrasts, 
Causes, Effects, etc. : see p. 71. 

In order to give the reader some chance of having 
a good Collection of Headings, and less chance of 
omitting the important Headings, I have offered (e.g. 
on pp. 83, 92) a few General Lists, which are not quite 
complete but yet approach to completeness ; two of 
these Lists will be found sufficient for most purposes. 
One of these is called the List of Period- Headings, 
such as Geography, Religion, Education, Commerce, 
War, etc. (see p. 83) ; the other is called the List of 
General Headings, and includes Instances, Causes and 
Hindrances, Effects, Aims, etc. : this latter List will be 
found on p. 92. 



30 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

Having explained (p. 73). what are all the various uses 
to which the Headings can be put, I have proceeded 
(p. 8y) to suggest how the Lists may be learnt ; for it will 
be worth while to learn these Lists, and to learn them in 
the right way. This will make them still more useful. 

Having shown what are the main Headings for 
various Essays, I go on (p. 95) to the Sub-Headings 
for various Essays; and I finish up with Headings 
for an Essay on a Person (p. 96), on an Author 
(p. 129), and Headings for Literary Criticism. After 
this (p. 133) follow Topics for Composition, and the 
skeleton of an Essay on ' Progress '. 

Some of the Headings are so important that they 
demand special Chapters to themselves. Among these 
are : — 

Authorities and their Faults (p. 139); 

Other Evidences (p. 145); 

Fallacies (p. 150) ; 

Definitions (p. 159); 

Parallels and Comparisons (p. 162 : cp. p. 281); 

Contrasts (p. 291) ; 

Quotations (p. 163). 

So much for the Collection of Headings. 

We now come to the task of Selecting those which 
we want, and Rejecting those which we do not want; 
and Chapter XXXI. (p. 166) explains why we should 
select certain Headings : for instance they may be 
Important, or Interesting. 

The Headings, having been Selected, must now be 
1 Proportioned' (p. 170). This is best done by Under- 
lining. In other words, we must decide which are 
to be Emphasised very much, and which are to be 



SUMMARY OF THE BOOK 31 

Emphasised rather less, and which are to be thrown 
into the background. 

Next, the Headings must of course be Arranged 
(p. 172). There are various principles, which are ex- 
plained on p. 178, and these will settle our Arrangement ; 
but the greatest help towards the mechanical work of 
Arranging will be the " Card- System ". This is de- 
scribed in Chapter XXXIV. (p. 186), and its advantages 
are shown in Chapter XXXV. (p. 192), where the saving 
of time and energy, and the improvement in the results, 
and various other merits, are briefly touched on. 

PART III. (p. 202 foil.) concerns the Expression of Ideas 
and Style. It presupposes that the Ideas or Headings 
have already been Collected, Selected, Underlined, and 
Arranged, and perhaps written out in a Scheme, and 
that they are now ready to be Expressed. 

The reader will doubtless be amazed at the amount 
of time which has to be spent before he arrives at the 
stage of Expressing his Ideas at all. But, the more he 
examines the subject, and the more he goes by his 
personal experience, the more he will find it worth 
while to spend time on, and to practise carefully, this 
first department of Composition, as opposed to the mere 
Expression. Indeed one might almost say that, if this 
first department has been thoroughly well done, that is 
to say, if the Scheme of Headings and Sub-Headings 
has been well prepared, the Expression will be a com- 
paratively easy matter. 

Chapter XXXVI. (p. 202) will give General Hints on 
Expression, and Chapter XXXVII. (p. 205) will point 
out the chief Difficulties and Faults in Expression. 

The reader will then be told how to find out for 
himself the chief Characteristics of any Author's 



32 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

Expression and Style. He will see a familiar passage 
from the New Testament (p. 212) taken and analysed ; 
and, having learnt this, he will have at his fingers' ends 
instances of nearly all the most desirable characteristics 
of Expression. And he may find it worth while to con- 
sider (see p. 219) how far he should try to imitate the 
Style of any one person. 

Then follow Chapters on Originality (p. 219), Force 
(p. 222), Clearness and Simplicity — a most essential 
consideration (p. 227), Brevity and Economy (p. 238), 
Appropriateness, and Unity (p. 243), Variety (p. 251), 
and Interest and Suggestiveness (p. 255). 

In this last Chapter he will see how important it 
is to study the audience or reader, quite apart from 
the likings of the Writer himself. The great mass of 
Writers and Speakers forget to study those to whom 
they are Writing or Speaking, and the result is that 
they fail, not only to be clear, but also to be interest- 
ing and suggestive ; they go too fast or too slow or in 
the wrong lines altogether. 

Interest is required especially in the Beginning, or 
rather in the Beginnings : for instance, in the Beginning 
not only of the Essay but also (cp. p. 311) of the 
Paragraph. 

Chapter XLVIII. deals with Connexion and Cohesion, 
and the previous Chapter (p. 261) with Endings, which 
should as a rule be Impressive. There follows a most im- 
portant matter for consideration, namely {Force and) 
Emphasis. The two are nearly the same, but I have at- 
tempted to treat them in separate Chapters. The various 
Means of Emphasis are described (p. 270) and special 
Exercises are suggested, for instance special Exercises 
on Comparisons (p. 289), and Contrasts (p. 295) ; these 



SUMMARY OF THE BOOK 33 

Comparisons and Contrasts serve so many purposes that 
they demand whole sections to themselves : their uses 
will be found on pp. 281, 291. 

No less important than Emphasis is the Absence 
of Emphasis (p. 27S). It is of little use to make a 
statement emphatic, if you make all the other state- 
ments emphatic also ; there is a great art in throwing 
these into the background. 

• After the Comparisons and Contrasts there follow 
(p. 296 foil.) the uses of Questions and other Rhetorical 
Devices ; but these will be found in more detail in other 
Books. 

Chapter LVI. deals with Rhythm, of which the im- 
portance is very great ; but it is suggested that Rhythm 
should not be considered till the end of an Essay. It is 
true that it should be constantly practised as a special 
Exercise, but it should not be allowed to engross the 
mind, when the mind should be considering the more 
weighty matters, such as Clearness and Interest. 

After this we have a few words on Chapters (p. 308), 
Paragraphs (p. 310), and Sentences (p. 315). 

Then follows quite a brief section on Grammar or 
Syntax; the cause of most mistakes in Grammar is 
pointed out, and a safe rule is given on p. 320. 

A safe rule is also given, on p. 324, as to the choice 
of Vocabulary. 

After some notes on Writing, Spelling, and Punctua- 
tion, this Part of the work finishes with a few lines (p. 330) 
on the art of Revising an Essay, a most necessary art, 
but one that is very little studied or put into practice. 

Part IV. gives notes on how to Correct Composi- 
tions (p. 335), pointing out especially how each fault 
should be traced back to its cause and classified, e.g. 



34 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

" Such and such a fault is one of Obscurity ". The 
Exercise to get rid of this fault is, let us say, to turn 
passages into simple English : see p. 232. 

Of the three Chapters that follow, the first is ' How to 
Teach Composition '. Here especial attention is called 
to the Part-by-Part System; the Aims of Teaching are 
explained (p. 345) in order to show that it is worth while 
spending a great deal of time in laying the foundations 
accurately and firmly, since so much of the whole future 
life will depend on these foundations. 

Very much the same advice, but adapted to the point 
of view of the learner, is given in Chapter LXVII. 
(p. 347) : the learner is there told How to Practise. 
There are also suggestions on How to Read Books and 
Articles, etc. (p. 352), and on How to Learn from Lectures 
and Speeches (p. 358). In these two latter sections it is as 
well to emphasise the general advice, " Try a thing for 
yourself before you go to anything or anyone for infor- 
mation." You should try (if there is time) to work out 
the subject beforehand ; and then, after you have read 
or listened to the information, you should note it down 
in a special Note-book, and if possible make certain of 
understanding it, of remembering it, and of using it. 

General Hints and Helps are added in Chapter LXX. 

Part V. (p. 367 foil.) is more special, giving Hints on 
Writing for the Press, including the Correction of 
Proofs and Index-Making, and giving advice as to 
how to apply to Publishers and Editors. 

As Chapter LXXI. deals only with Writing, so 
Chapter LXXI I. deals only with Speaking, and Chapter 
LXX 1 1 1, only with Letter-Writing. 

In Part VI. (p. 397 foil.) I have suggested the advan- 
tages of this whole System, especially the System of 



SUMMARY OF THE BOOK 35 

practising all subjects Part by Part, by means of special 
Exercises, instead of trying to learn the subject all 
together by a single Process. This is in Chapter 
LXXIV. ; the next Chapter supplements it by giving 
the Objections to such a system as mine, and answers 
to these Objections. 

Last of all, an Appendix offers a list of useful Books. 



36 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 



General Hints on Preparing Essays etc., in Rhyme. 

Don't write, but first think out your aims, 
your public, and the topic's claims. 



.Define by Contrasts, Illustrations, 
Examples, and Exaggerations. 



Use General Lists, Objections state 



Collect Main-Headings ; then collect 
Sub-Headings ; underline, reject. 
Arrange beginnings, end, and sections, 
to show proportion and connexions. 
Revise ; write out ; wait ; read, reclaim 
th' obscure, harsh, ill-adapted, tame. 



CHAPTER VII. SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 
OP COMPOSITION. 



In learning any subject, after one has viewed it as a 
whole, it is necessary to take it to pieces and analyse it, 
and to consider each one of its parts or departments. 
There are many reasons why this should be the best 
way for average learners, even if the genius manages 
to produce successful results without any such labour. 
Yet even he will find that the labour of analysing and 
of practising Part-by-Part has not been thrown away, if 
he ever has to teach others. 

In going through the various parts or departments of 
Writing and Speaking, it will be of the greatest help 
and also of the greatest interest to find any Principles 
which apply more or less to all of them, or to many of 
them. Are there any such Principles that apply, for 
example, to Essay- Writing in its different departments ? 
to the Collection and Selection and Underlining and 
Arranging and Expressing of the Headings and Sub- 
Headings? 

One of such underlying Principles certainly is Unity. 
Now this word may convey very little meaning to any- 
body but a specialist, and yet it is a most important 
Principle or Law. It is easier to look at ' Unity' from 
another point of view, viz. as a kind of Economy, that 
is to say, the giving up and discarding of what is un- 
necessary ; this is not the whole of ' Unity ', but it is the 
37 



3$ INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

most essential part of it. We have to throw aside and 
keep out whatever is superfluous, whether it be in Words 
or Clauses or Sentences or even whole Paragraphs, that 
is to say, whole Ideas ; in a Book, it may be even 
necessary to the 'Unity' to cut out a whole Chapter. 

We might possibly define the ' Unity ' of the Com- 
position by saying that one ought to be able to sum up 
the whole in a single word or a single sentence, and that 
one ought to go through the whole without being able 
to cut out anything as spoiling the particular effect 
intended. But the 'Unity' of a Composition as a 
whole is a very hard thing to define at all satis- 
factorily : obviously the Composition should have one 
main subject, one leading and guiding Idea, though 
that Idea may be looked at from very many points 
of view, and though many Ideas may be introduced 
which do not seem to belong to the subject and yet 
serve to illustrate it. 

As an instance, let us take a passage on p. 212. One 
would say that rain and storm had very little to do 
with a description of a person who was really good ; 
nevertheless they come into one of the most admirable 
descriptions which we can find anywhere in Literature. 
They are described as beating against a house, and 
in the one instance as having no effect on it but in 
the other instance as bringing it to its fall. They are 
details, but they serve to make Clear and to Emphasise 
the main Idea. 

No Writer seems to be going off the point, and to 
be violating the Law of ' Unity ' and Economy, more 
than Carlyle does. As we read his " Frederick the 
Great", the characters at first appear to us to have no 
more connexion with one another than the characters 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION 39 

in a Harlequinade, yet, before the book is done, we see 
that they all throw some light upon the life and times of 
Frederick the Great : that is to say, they do not violate 
the Law of ' Unity '. 

For ' Unity ' is indeed something beyond mere 
Economy. We can divide up the whole into its various 
parts, and say that the whole consists of A, B, C, D, and 
E. But we cannot be safe in saying that the whole 
is no more than a series of parts (A + B + C + D + E); 
for each part exists not only by itself but exists also to 
throw light on all the other parts, and in turn to be 
lighted up by them. This therefore will be another 
sign of ' Unity ', not merely that there is nothing un- 
necessary in any part, but also that each part has some 
connexion with the other parts and could not be re- 
moved without the other parts losing something. 

Within the ' Unity ' of Composition as a whole, there 
is a ' Unity ' of each part : each Section or Paragraph 
must have its ' Unity ', each Sentence within the Para- 
graph, and we might almost say each Clause within the 
Sentence. 

The principle of Economy must not be carried too 
far in any of these parts. Clearness and Definiteness, 
and what may be called Simplicity, are not to be 
sacrificed for the sake of Unity. We must leave 
definite and clear Ideas in the reader's mind. This 
applies not only to the Composition as a whole but 
also to every Section, Chapter, and Paragraph, to every 
Sentence, and to every Clause. Moreover there is this 
to be remembered : we must not judge of the Clearness 
of any one part by itself: the rest of the parts are 
expected to throw light on it ; otherwise many 
Sentences would be quite indefensible, but, as it is, 



40 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

they quite justify themselves because they say, "We 
are perfectly clear if you consider us not by ourselves 
but in our context ". 

In other words, besides the Principle of ' Unity', and 
the Principle of Clearness, there is a third Principle, 
viz. Co-operation. Each part, whether it be a Section 
or a Paragraph or a Sentence or a Clause or a Word, 
must be as far as possible perfect in itself and yet must 
be practically dependent on other parts, just as they 
must be dependent on it. We shall see that, as 
Civilisation advances, people become more and more 
dependent upon one another ; and we may say that, 
the more one nation comes to depend on other nations, 
the more likely there is to be Co-operation in the 
world, and hence something approaching to universal 
perfection. 

It follows from this that each part of the Com- 
position, as well as the whole Essay, must be appro- 
priate to its special purpose, while the whole Composition 
must be appropriate to and adapted to the aim of 
the Writer, to the subject, and to the people for whom 
he is writing : this applies equally to every part of an 
Essay. The Ideas, their Selection, their Emphasis, 
their Arrangement, and their Expression, must all 
depend upon the Fitness for the particular conditions. 
It is most important to realise that this Law of Fitness 
pervades almost the whole of Composition, so that 
what may be excellent in itself, or excellent in a certain 
context, will be even extremely bad in another context. 
What may be nourishing food for a person in the prime 
of life may actually kill an infant. On the other hand, 
the running about for hours together, which is so good 
for the boy, would be impossible for an old man, and 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION 41 

might even kill him. Hence each part of the Com- 
position, the Section, the Paragraph, the Sentence, and 
the Word, must not be judged by itself, as people are 
wont to judge texts from the Old or the New Testa- 
ment, but in the light of this question : " Is it appro- 
priate to this particular Composition, to the particular 
subject and aim of the Writer or Speaker, and to the 
particular readers or hearers, and the particular place 
in the .Composition itself?" 

There is yet another Principle, which might come 
under the Heading of Appropriateness, and that is 
'Proportion'. A Paragraph, which would be excellent 
in one Essay, may be quite out of place in another, for 
there it would perhaps emphasise some Idea which in 
this Essay was not of the least importance ; or, vice versa, 
a Paragraph, which passed over some unimportant 
Idea with a few light words in one Essay, might be out 
of place in another Essay where the Idea was of im- 
portance. Hence in every part of Composition every 
part must be in proportion to its importance. This 
is most clear when we come to consider the length of 
a Paragraph. It is a general rule that an important 
Idea should have a long Paragraph: the 'bulk', or 'mass', 
of the Paragraph (as Prof. Barrett Wendell aptly calls it) 
should usually mark out the Idea as one of weight. 

The Beginning and the Ending are most important, 
not only for the Essay itself, but for every Section, and 
Paragraph, and Sentence. As a rule the Beginning- 
should be interesting, and the Ending impressive ; but, 
within the Essay, the Beginning and the Ending may 
both be used as links to connect the different parts 
together. 

The Law of Connexion is scarcely less important 



42 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

than any of the above ; it might come with the Law 
of Unity and the Law of Co-operation, but still there 
is a distinction. It would be possible to have an Essay 
of which each part contributed something to the 
general effect, and yet this Essay might be wanting 
in Connexion. For, supposing we took the various 
Headings and wrote them down on Cards, and then 
shuffled these Cards, the different parts would still have 
the Principle of Unity and Co-operation (to a certain 
extent), and yet would be utterly wanting in Connexion, 
at any rate in so far as Connexion depends on the 
right Order and Arrangement. 

Throughout the Composition, and all its parts, the 
Order and Arrangement are of great moment. Not 
only is it required that each Word, for example, shall 
be well chosen and appropriate : each Word must also 
be in its right place. For the particular purpose it 
should be just here or just there. 

Last of all one cannot imagine Appropriateness (to 
the particular subject, the particular purpose, and the 
particular 'audience' of the Writer), or Arrangement, 
without a great deal of Variety : the Law of Variety, 
therefore, will be the next Law we shall mention. 

Almost everywhere in life there is felt from time to 
time a need of change, and this applies to every de- 
partment of Composition and Speaking : there must 
not be monotony in the Arrangement of Ideas, in the 
Comparisons and Contrasts, in the length of the Para- 
graphs, of the Sentences, of the Words, in the Con- 
struction, in the Rhythm, and so on. There must be 
Variety. 

But the Variety must not be unnecessary. It must 
be within due bounds ; it must be appropriate and 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION 43 

adapted to the readers, etc. Variety is one of the 
chief means of securing Clearness, Interest and Atten- 
tion, and Emphasis. 

Another Law that goes through the whole of Com- 
position, from the Ideas (Headings and Sub-Headings) 
down to the individual Words and the Punctuation, is 
Clearness. 

Such other Principles as Interest and Suggestiveness, 
and (especially in the Endings) Impressiveness, apply to 
a great many departments (e.g. the Headings and Sub- 
Headings, the Comparisons, etc.), but can hardly be 
called ' Principles of universal application \ 

We cannot say that any one of the above Laws is 
more important than any other, for no single one of 
these Laws stands by itself; here one will yield to 
another, and elsewhere this other will have to yield to 
the first. In a perfect Essay, the Laws would be found 
never to go against one another ; each apparent excep- 
tion to one Law would eventually be found to come 
under some higher Law. Perhaps the highest Law of 
all, if one had to choose some one out of the list, would 
be the Law of Appropriateness. 



CHAPTER VIII. DIFFICULTIES AND FAULTS 
IN COMPOSITION, WITH A 
SAMPLE SCHOOLBOY-ESSAY 
(ANALYSED). 



An Essay is set on " Tyrants ". A boy sends in an 
exercise which is perhaps very bad in its Expression 
and Style ; there are mistakes in Punctuation (p. 328), 
in Vocabulary (p. 324), in Grammar (p. 320) ; there is 
often a want of Rhythm, of Clearness, of Interest, of 
Variety, and so on. But this need not trouble us just 
yet. Here we need only notice the Ideas. We analyse 
the Essay, and find some such Ideas as this. 

1. Tyrants unpopular ; 

2. spend money of poor ; 

3. but often successful in war ; 

4. cruel ; 

5. often short reign ; 

6. some patriotic. 
Now here are Ideas which are 

a. very meagre, compared with what the boy knows and could 
easily work out : e.g. he has omitted — 

Evidences (very important here) ; 
Causes of rise of Tyrants ; 
Obstacles to rise and to tenure of power ; 
etc. 
/3. all on the same level of Importance, like a picture with its 
background as distinct and detailed as its foreground ; 
7. badly arranged ; for here we have 

1. a point against Tyrants ; 

2. do.; 

3. a point for them ; 

4. a point against ; 

5. a characteristic, not necessarily for or against ; 

6. a point for them. 

The Ideas are not arranged and grouped under Main Headings. 
Why are there so many faults ? 
44 



DIFFICULTIES IN COMPOSITION 45 

As in Games, so in Composition, one of the great 
difficulties of a learner is that his Teacher is very 
often one who does his work without knowing how. 
It is 'natural' to the Teacher to do the work well, but 
he is unconscious of the processes which are being gone 
through very quickly in his own mind ; and the result 
is that he thinks the work is simple and easy, merely 
because it is very simple and easy to him. He 
cannot put himself into the position of the learner 
to whom the work is very complicated and very 
difficult. 

The result of it may be that he tells the learner to 
" write an Essay ", to " be natural ",- to " do nothing 
consciously ", to " sit down and not think what he shall 
write ". The learner writes an Essay, or what he calls 
an Essay ; it is then corrected, and the next week the 
learner writes another Essay. By repetition and 
practice of a kind he improves up to a certain point : 
for example, he becomes able to get through the Essay 
more quickly and easily ; but there are too many faults 
to be corrected at once, there is too much to be thought 
of at once, in the process of Essay-writing ; and perhaps 
there is not one single part that he knows how to do 
correctly even by itself. How much more must he fail 
when he attempts to combine the various parts together 
in a single "process. That the average learner should 
succeed without having acquired each part laboriously 
and carefully by itself is almost an impossibility. 

Not one single part has been clearly taught him, still 
less has any single part been practised in the right 
way. When the individual faults have been pointed 
out, they have probably been pointed out merely as 
individual faults ; the general principle has not been 



46 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY 

pointed out at all. The boy has not been told exactly 
how and why his particular fault was a fault, and how 
his particular class of fault might have been avoided, 
and might best be got rid of for the future. 

Once again, though he may have done hundreds of 
Essays, yet he may not have gathered any general 
lesson which may apply to all Essays, or at any rate 
to all Essays of a certain class. He may have done 
an Essay on ' The Age of Pericles ', another on ' The 
Age of Alexander the Great ', another on ' The Age of 
Cato ', another on ' The Age of Augustus ', another on 
' The Age of Charlemagne ', another on ' The Age of 
Napoleon ', and so on. Each, however, may have been 
done as if it had nothing in common with any of the 
other Ages ; he may never have been told that in each 
Essay there will be very much the same Headings to be 
considered, for instance, War, Justice, Finance, Govern- 
ment, Religion, Literature, and so on. He has been 
doing as utterly separate topics those which were really 
connected by many points of similarity. 

The same will apply to his Essays on Individuals, 
such as Epaminondas, Philip of Macedon, Tarquin, 
Caesar, Seneca, etc. He may have done many such 
Essays without being told that in all such instances it 
is necessary to consider very much the same Headings, 
such as (see p. 92) Evidences, Parallels and Contrasts, 
Effects, Aims, Changes, and so on. 

He may be, and is almost certain to be, in a hurry to 
begin, and very reluctant to spend time on a practice 
which cannot be without a certain amount of drudgery. 

As he does his Essay, he will probably 'economise' 
paper, cramping on a single page, filled with many 
additions and corrections, what ought to have been 



DIFFICULTIES IN COMPOSITION 47 

spread over many pages, and so he may have to rewrite 
a good deal of what he does. 

He will forget to take into account that he will have 
various readers, some ignorant and unliterary, others 
lazy and unenthusiastic, others scholarly and severe, 
and others (like most women) demanding personal items 
and details. 

And thus he may choose quite the wrong method of 
treating the subject. The chief faults will correspond 
to the pieces of advice which are given below. The 
learner may have made no Scheme of his Essay at all 
(see p. 56), or (p. 57) he may have made a bad Scheme. 

As to his Ideas, see page 54. He may have omitted 
Comparisons and Contrasts, as well as a great deal that 
he really knows. He may have used no common sense ; 
his Beginning may be uninteresting ; his changes from 
one topic to another may be jerky ; and there may be 
no proper Proportion of the Ideas, which appear in his 
Essay as if they were all equally important or unim- 
portant ; he may give Quotations which he has not 
properly 'digested'. 

In Style and Expression (see p. 205), his Paragraphs 
may be too long ; his work may be full of Abstract 
phrases and far from clear ; he may have no Rhythm ; 
and, in brief, his Style may be full of faults. 

It is to remove these difficulties and to correct these 
faults that the following pages are written. 



CHAPTER IX. AIMS AND MOTIVES OP 
WRITERS AND SPEAKERS. 



On p. 102 we shall consider the Aims and Motives 
which lead men to act in certain ways. We shall 
notice how the Motives were liable 

to change from time to time (p. 102), 
to be mixed: often, the more Motives there are, 
the more incentive there is to action. 
Similarly, the Speaker may speak and the Writer 
may write with one or more of the following Aims 
in view, or his Aims may differ at different times. 
His Aim may be 

to interest his audience, even if his ultimate 

Aim is 
to get for himself money or fame, etc. (or to 

escape poverty or obscurity, etc., p. 103) ; 
to please his audience, by amusing them or 

flattering them ; 
to excite their reason (* For heaven's sake do 
use your reason,' said Demosthenes) ; and 
so to convince them, 
to persuade them, or to dissuade them, or to 
correct some false opinions. 

We might include here the desire to elicit 
independent thought, e.g. by suggesting a 
problem to be worked out ; 
to describe something, so that the reader or hearer 
may see what the Writer or Speaker sees. 



MOTIVES OF WRITERS AND SPEAKERS 49 

to instruct them and improve them, and to 
benefit their 

body (e.g. health), 
intellect, 

character and morals ; 
to glorify some people, or to defend them, and 
perhaps to vilify and to blame others. 

It is most important to know, as far as you possibly 
can, what your Aims are in Writing or Speaking on 
any given occasion. For not only is this a part of your 
'Duty towards Yourself,' but it should actually influence 
the whole of your Composition. You should adapt and 
fit everything to your Aim — after making sure that your 
Aim is not low. 



Part II. 



PART II. IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, SELECT, 
UNDERLINE, AND ARRANGE 
HEADINGS, AND SUB-HEAD- 
INGS. 



CHAPTERS PAGE 

X, Bad Schemes for Compositions, and Faults 

of the Ideas and Headings . 54 

XL What the Ideas and Headings ought to be 60 

XII. How to COLLECT Ideas in the Form of 

Headings and Sub-Headings . 63 

XIII. Some Headings which are often Omitted. 71 

XIV. Advantages of GENERAL LISTS OF 

HEADINGS . . . 73 

XV. Headings for an Essay, etc., on a Period : 

with a Rhyme . . 79 

XVI. Various Uses for the Period-Headings . 84 

XVII. How to Learn Lists of Headings . . 87 

XVIII. Headings for Special Subjects (e.g. Colon- 
isation, or War): with a Rhyme . . 91 

XIX. Headings for an Essay, etc., on a Person . 93 

XX. Sub-Headings . . ... 95 

XXI. Sub -Headings for an Essay, etc., on a 

Person . . ... 96 

XXII. Sub-Headings for the Period-Headings . 107 
XXI II. Headings for an Essay, etc., on an Author, 

and for Literary Criticism . . .129 

52 



IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 53 

CHAPTERS PAGE 

XXIV. Topics for Composition, with Headings 



for an Essay on Progress . 

XXV. Authorities, and their Faults and 
Failings : with a Rhyme 

XXVI. Other Evidences 

XXVII. Fallacies : with a Rhyme 

XXVIII. Definitions . . . 

XXIX. Parallels, Comparisons, and Contrasts 
(See Chapters LI.-LIIL) 

XXX. Quotations . ... 

XXXI. How to SELECT AND REJECT Headings 
(Unity, etc.). 
XXXII. How to PROPORTION and Underline 
the Headings 

XXXIII. How to ARRANGE the Headings . 

XXXIV. The Card-System 

XXXV. Advantages of the Card-System 



i33 

139 
i45 
150 

i59 

162 
163 

166 

170 

172 
186 
192 



CHAPTER X. BAD SCHEMES FOR COMPOSITIONS, 
AND FAULTS OF 
THE IDEAS AND HEADINGS. 



The chief faults in Essay- writing have been already 
touched on (p. 54). Here we need only repeat, in more 
detail, the chief faults in the Ideas or Headings of an 
ordinary Essay or Speech. 

(1) The Headings are incomplete. Nine Essays out 
of ten omit the Evidences, which (see p. 147) should never 
be omitted, the exposing of Fallacies (p. 150), and, in 
a Period, the Period before (p. 126) and the Period 
afterwards (p. 125), and (p. no) the consideration of all 
the various Classes. Essays, again, generally omit 
Illustrations and Analogies (p. 281), and Contrasts. 

(2) A good many of the Ideas in average Essays are 
off the point ; the Writer begins all right but is apt 
to fly off at a tangent. 

(3) Some of the Ideas are untrue : this may be from 
ignorance, or it may be from carelessness about the 
Evidences. 

And here we may class those Ideas which are unfair 
and biassed (p. 141), and also Fallacies (p. 150). We find 
that a great many of the Ideas are illogical: these may 
be classed under the heading of Fallacies. 

(4) In Books (rather than in Articles and Essays) we 
too often find Ideas which are not exactly untrue, but 
are unwholsesome ; many modern Novels are remarkable 
for their unwholesomeness. 

54 



BAD SCHEMES FOR ESSA YS 55 

(5) A good deal may be quite true, and quite whole- 
some, and quite fair, and to a certain extent appropriate 
to the subject ; but still it may be quite uninteresting to 
the readers or hearers. In Books by specialists we 
generally find much which has very great merits, and 
is not so much unintelligible as uninteresting to the 
general public. We do not doubt that it is interesting 
to the Writer, but that is an entirely different matter. 

(6) We have mentioned, above, that most Essays are 
wanting in Comparisons and Contrasts. This a grievous 
deficiency for many reasons (see p. 281). 

(7) The Ideas may also be wanting in Proportion 
(p. 170). They may all appear as equally important, 
or the unimportant may be emphasised. 

(8) They may be wanting in Connexion and Cohesion 
(p. 263). 

(9) They may be unoriginal and copied direct from 
some Authority; on this point see p. 163 foil. 

(10) The Scheme of the Essay may have been bad: 
and this suggests a whole host of considerations 
(see p. 57). 

(11) Last of all, the Essay may be to some extent 
interesting, but it may not be fertile in suggestions. 
We shall see, on p. 357, that the best Books and Articles 
to read are those which suggest most to the reader, 
those which make him think most ; one often comes 
across Writings which do not encourage one to think 
in the very least ; rather, they seem to paralyse one's 
power of thinking. I make a habit of classifying Books 
in my mind according to the amount of new Ideas and 
new lines of thought that they have suggested, quite 
apart from the Arrangement of Ideas or the way in 
which the Ideas are Expressed. Among such Books, 



56 IDEAS: HO IV TO COLLECT, ETC. 

those by Froebel, Buckle, Seeley, and Herbert Spencer, 
come in the very front rank. 

I wish to end this Chapter with two remarks on 
Schemes or Plans for Essays, Speeches, etc. 

1. Many a Composition has been a failure because it 
has had no Scheme : it has been like a house (possibly 
a beautiful house) built on sand, or, rather, like a house 
built without scaffolding. 

2. Other Compositions have failed because their 
Scheme has been faulty. The following Diagrams 
will give a few specimens of faulty Schemes. 



BAD SCHEMES FOR ESSAYS 



57 



and so on. 



Diagram I. 



Scheme No. I is bad, because it is so cramped : there 
is little chance of additions or serious alterations, and 
there is little or no chance of re-arrangement. The 
Ideas are not clear : they do not give a bird's-eye view 
of the topic. False Economy of paper is perhaps the 
chief cause of error : I say false, because paper is of 
far less importance than time, mental labour, and a 
satisfactory result, to say nothing of eyesight. 



S8 



IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC 




Diagram II. 



Diagram II gives a somewhat better Scheme, because 
it has Margins, in which additions and corrections can 
be written. But these additions are clumsy, and, besides, 
re-arrangement would be very difficult. 



BAD SCHEMES FOR ESSAYS 



59 



Diagram III. 



Diagram III is still better, for it is clearer: it allows 
of additions and alterations, and of Sub-Headings also. 
If little paper is allowed in an Examination, then this 
Scheme may do fairly well. But, like I and II, it does 
not allow of easy re-arrangement. 

A fourth Scheme would be like III, but would put 
each Heading on a separate piece of paper or on a 
Card (see p. 186). This would be better, for the reasons 
given on p. 192: e.g. alterations, additions, Sub-Headings, 
and re-arrangement, would all be easy. 



CHAPTER XI. WHAT THE IDEAS AND 
HEADINGS OUGHT TO BE. 



i. The Ideas should be as complete as possible. That 
is to say, nothing of importance should be omitted. 

2. The next Law, which will counteract this and 
keep it within due limits, is the Law of Unity, which 
means that one shall only select such Ideas as belong 
to the subject and to one's particular Aim in Writing or 
Speaking, and that one shall reject every other Idea. 

3. Truth and fairness are to be considered. There 
must be no Bias. If a biassed Idea is mentioned, then 
the Objections to it should be mentioned also. In fact, 
fairness demands that both sides of the question should 
be given. But (someone will ask) in preparing an Essay 
or an Article, may we not simply state one view of the 
case? Of course there is much to be said for this, and 
especially that it gives the ordinary reader one clear 
notion, and does not puzzle him with a lot of ex- 
ceptions at the outset. So far this is all right, but 
the exceptions and the Objections should also be 
mentioned, and it is a safe rule even to exaggerate the 
case for the other side. 

4. Anyhow the Ideas should be as logical as possible. 
And they should show a knowledge of human nature. 

5. The Ideas should also be moral and healthy. 
Essays do not usually err in respect of unhealthiness, 
in fact, not nearly so much as Novels do. 

6. As to the definiteness of Ideas, that is also to be 

60 



WHAT THE IDEAS OUGHT TO BE. 61 

considered. The Ideas should be quite clear to the 
Author himself: for the meaning of this, see p. 228. 

7. The Ideas should also be illustrated by Parallels, 
Comparisons, and Contrasts. This applies not only to 
those Ideas which would naturally be somewhat hard 
to understand otherwise, but to those Ideas which one 
wishes to Emphasise. 

8. The Ideas also should show a certain Proportion. 
This of course depends largely upon the way in which 
they are expressed (see p. 271) ; but it has a good deal 
to do with the Ideas themselves as Ideas, and with 
their Arrangement. What is important should stand 
out in the foreground, and what is unimportant should 
retire into the background. 

9. The Connexion of Ideas with one another also 
depends partly on the Arrangement, and partly on the 
Expression : see p. 263. 

10. As to whether the Ideas should be Original or 
not, there has been a great deal of discussion. There 
are some who say that Writers and Speakers should 
only write or say what they have discovered for them- 
selves. Others say that they may write or say anything 
which anybody has discovered, so long as they them- 
selves have understood and felt what the Ideas mean. 
They must make the Ideas their own, before they hand 
them on to others. 

11. But, be that as it may, the Ideas should be 
Interesting, not so much to the Writer or Speaker 
himself, as to the reader ; and one department of this 
Interest would be the Suggestiveness. Essays should 
not merely give information, but they should also 
suggest problems and encourage the reader to think 
out his problems for himself. 



62 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 



What the Ideas should be : in Rhyme. 

Ideas should be the Author's own, seen clear by his 

own eyes, 
free from wrong Aims, Omissions, Bias, Fallacies, and 

Lies ; 
With Unity, Proportion, Order, Interest, and Style/'-" 



* For the continuation of the Rhyme, see p. 204. 



CHAPTER XII. HOW TO COLLECT IDEAS 

IN THE FORM OF HEADINGS 
AND SUB-HEADINGS. 



THE Collection of Ideas (in the form of Headings and 
Sub- Headings) must be a process by itself. While it 
is going on, no attention must be paid to anything 
else; the whole mind must be concentrated on the 
Collection of Ideas. Even the Sub-Headings (under 
each main Heading) must not be thought of, though 
they must be put down when they suggest themselves. 

Above all it is necessary to be able to express the 
whole Idea by as few words as possible : a single word 
is often quite enough. Thus no time will be wasted, 
and the writing will keep pace with the thoughts. See 
p. 66 for some helps towards this, eg. the Analysing 
of Books or of Letters. 

Of course the amount of time which can be given 
to the Collecting of Ideas, and the way in which they 
can be Collected, depends a good deal upon the 
conditions, for instance upon whether you have a week 
in which to prepare the work, or only a few hours ; 
whether you can refer to reference-books, or whether 
you are thrown on your own resources ; whether you 
are able to use the Card-system (p. 186) or whether you 
have to rely on paper of an ordinary kind, or whether 
you are not even allowed paper. 

As a rule I should suggest that the Collecting of 
Ideas (Headings and Sub-Headings) for an Essay 
63 



6 4 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC, 

should generally take about a third of the whole time 
which the Essay itself will demand. With the extra 
process of Selecting and Rejecting Ideas, and Under- 
lining them, and Arranging them, I should say that not 
less than half the time should be devoted to this part 
of the subject, before a single sentence is expressed : 
the beginning and ending Sentences or Paragraphs 
may be excepted. 

It is wonderful how the power of quickly Collecting 
Ideas increases with practice. I can now Collect 
Ideas perhaps four times as fast as I used to be 
able to. And not only that, but I can also form 
far more complete Lists. The following will give 
some idea of the relative 'proportions' in Essay- 
writing. On one occasion the Headings which I had 
Collected consisted of ioo words. I arranged these 
and read through them and mastered them in about 
5 minutes. I dictated them in just under 5 minutes. 
I wrote them down afterwards in just under 25 minutes, 
and the whole amount, when written down, came to 
about 500 words. On another occasion, when the 
whole amount which I wrote down came to about ioco 
words, and the Headings again to about 100 words, the 
dictation (to a Shorthand Clerk) took me 7 minutes, 
and the writing-out (by myself afterwards, as an ex- 
periment) about 42 minutes. It must be remembered 
that, whereas my power of writing out an Essay has 
not grown so very much quicker, my power of Collect- 
ing and Arranging Headings has grown extraordinarily 
quicker. 

Besides the General Lists (pp. 83, 92), other helps to- 
wards the Collection of Headings would of course be the 
reading of Books and Articles, the listening to and the 



HOW TO COLLECT IDEAS 65 

taking part in Debates and conversations on the sub- 
jects, and the collecting and working out of Parallels, 
Comparisons, and Contrasts. 

These latter are among the most valuable means for 
Collecting Headings for ordinary purposes. A good 
instance would be an Essay-question like the Bonds 
of Union between England and her Colonies. Of this 
the average reader knows little, or rather he has little 
that he can say on the spur of the moment. Let him 
first of all get the underlying principle, namely that 
he wants to find out Bonds of Union, and then let him 
work them out wherever it is easiest to work them out. 
For instance, let him ask himself what are the Bonds 
of Union in an ordinary family, or in any other group 
of people (such as a Club) : he will think of a great 
number of Headings in this way. Then let him think 
of Comparisons : for instance, the analogy of the bundle 
of sticks. Then let him think of Contrasts, e.g. what 
it is that prevents people from joining together, or (to 
take an extreme case) what is it that makes them quarrel. 

It is important to leave intervals, that is to say not 
to write the Essay or make the Speech immediately 
after the Headings have been Collected, but to let the 
mind lie fallow for a while, so that new Ideas may come 
to the surface. It is surprising what a number of fresh 
thoughts suggest themselves at intervals when once we 
have been through a topic. 

But it is generally absolutely essential that, before 
the Essayist reads a single, word written by anyone else, 
he should try to work out the whole topic for himself, 
jotting down those Ideas which are already in his mind. 
Afterwards, by all means let him add to those Ideas : 
let him read as much as he can on the subject, and let 

F 



66 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

him look at these Ideas at intervals ; but let him 
seldom, if ever, go straight to any Book for information. 
Even a few minutes spent in working out a topic (see 
p. 353) will not be wasted. 

When he now has his Headings more or less ready, 
let him write them either on Cards (see p. 186) or in 
a permanent Note-book. He may have to re-arrange 
them at intervals, and, if so, the Cards will be better 
than the Note-book. 

He should always have a number of good subjects to 
think out, during odd moments. The amount of time 
which might be spent on good and interesting subjects 
during each ordinary day probably amounts to at 
least one hour. 

It is very well worth while to practise writing down 
Ideas by single words. It is a kind of shorthand in 
Writing. One does not write down the whole sen- 
tence, but one writes down the main Ideas, of which 
the general effect will be like that of the Table of 
Contents at the beginning of a Book or Chapter. 
Only there would be a difference, namely that the Ideas 
will be written under one another, and not in a single 
line. This would also be useful for Telegrams. And 
a good way of practising it would be to take a News- 
paper, and, without looking at the Headings, to try to 
devise Headings of one's own for each Paragraph, and 
afterwards to refer to the Headings actually given. 
Or, again, Letters which you receive might be analysed, 
the analysis being kept e.g. iri an Indexed Note-book. 
Such a Note-book might be of great use. 

This power of expressing Ideas by single words is of 
enormous value throughout life. As I said above, in 
the Collecting of Ideas the thought is apt to outrun the 



HOW TO COLLECT LDEAS 67 

pen. But when the thought is jotted down as a single 
word, or as very few words, then the pen can keep tip. 
Personally, I believe that the habit of making Lists 
of things of any kind (e.g. of requisites for a journey, 
or of presents) will improve and be improved by this. 
Collection of Ideas for Essays. 

It is needless to say that it is very important to read 
Books, and Articles, such as the Articles in the " North 
American Review" or the "Nineteenth Century", and to 
listen to Lectures and Speeches and conversations ; 
only it must be borne in mind that the Ideas gathered 
up in this way should be reproduced on paper afterwards. 
If you only have the Headings to reproduce, you can 
write them down in next to no time. It is also excel- 
lent practice for the memory. Afterwards the Headings 
can be corrected and added to. 

A few miscellaneous Hints may be suggested here. 

In Collecting Ideas it is often as well to get what 
may be called Tables, of Causes etc. (see pp. 11 2-1 13). 
They will enable one to think of a good deal which 
otherwise one might forget. 

Secondly it is a great help to do this Collection of 
Headings while the mind is still fresh, rather than after 
any hard work. Nothing is so fagging to most people 
as writing consecutively hour after hour. At the end 
of this time the brain is no longer at its best ; so the 
work of Collecting Headings should be done while one 
feels in the fullest vigour. This includes not only the 
beginning of the Examination hours, for example, but 
also certain times in the day (e.g. not between 1.30 and 
3-0 p.m.) 

It must be remembered that, as one writes down the 
Headings, the symbols and signs for them need o?ily be 



68 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

clear to oneself ; thus one can use Abbreviations (see 
below) ; and, generally, any means which brings a clear 
Idea before one's mind will be sufficient. One is not 
doing Headings for the benefit of anyone else except 
oneself. It is the Essay or Speech which is going to be 
read or heard by others, and not its Headings. A 
List of General Abbreviations is appended to this 
Chapter. 

Between the Headings there should be spaces, so that 
additions can be made, and so that the whole result 
can stand out more clearly. It is a great mistake to 
economise paper. And, in the Arrangement of Headings, 
the principle of indentation should be used : that is to 
say, the main Headings should stand underneath one 
another, and the Sub-Headings should be a little to the 
right, a little inland, again underneath one another. 
This would be illustrated by the Diagram on p. 59. 

When the Headings, and then the Sub-Headings, 
have been Collected, each can be gone through and 
revised. And a Scheme can now be made, perhaps 
on a single large page. Occasionally it will be found 
that, while one is actually writing out the Essay, new 
Headings will occur, being suggested by something 
which one has not worked out fully before. These 
should be added to one's Scheme. 

The Scheme should not tie the Writer or Speaker 
down : it is meant to help him and not to hamper him, 
so that omissions, additions, alterations, and even 
changes in the Arrangement, can be made as the Essay 
is being written out or as the Speech is being spoken. 
And of course the occasional practice of an Essay or 
Speech without a Scheme at all will be an excellent 
lesson in promptitude. 



HOW TO COLLECT IDEAS 69 

It may be interesting to the reader to know that the 
dictation of this Chapter to a Shorthand Clerk, from 
a set of simple Headings, took about 20 minutes. It 
will give some idea of how much of the Essay is prac- 
tically already done by the time that the Headings have 
been Collected, and Arranged, etc. Of the Arrange- 
ment of Headings I shall speak in a subsequent 
Chapter. 

In conclusion, I would add that I believe that the 
habit of Collecting Ideas (as Headings and Sub- 
Headings) will develope a general habit of Collecting, 
and that, conversely, the habit of Collecting other 
things (e.g. things for a journey) will develope the 
special habit of Collecting Ideas. 



7o IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 



A few General Abbreviations (useful for Schemes, 
and for the Card-System). 

V because, for 
.". therefore, and so 

= is equivalent to, corresponding to, etc. 
> is greater than, is better than, conquers, etc. 
< is smaller than, is inferior to, is conquered by, etc, 
- without, apart from 
+ in addition to, with the help of 
)( is contrasted with, in opposition to, etc. 
-» developes into, produces, (? causes), etc. 
«- is produced by, (? is caused by), etc. 
II in proportion to 
t see above 
^ see below.. 



CHAPTER XIII. SOME HEADINGS WHICH ARE 
OFTEN OMITTED. 



THOSE who look over Essays, or who hear Speeches, 
and who are not utterly uncritical or unoriginal, and 
who do not concentrate their attention on the Ex- 
pression and Style, cannot fail to notice the frequent 
Omission of many Ideas which seem to them to be 
important or even indispensable. 

Examples will be given below (e.g. see p. 79), but 
here let me briefly note a few of the commonest 
Omissions. 

We have a Composition on some Period, let us say 
'The Age of Louis the XlVth': we analyse it into 
Headings, and we find that no mention is made e.g. of 

the A uthorities and Evidences, and Fallacies ; 

the Previous Age, which will give some of the 
Causes and Hindrances (p. 126); 

the Subsequent Age, which will give some of the 
Results and Reactions (p. 125); 

Changes within the Age itself, which will give the 
tendencies (p. 127) ; 

certain Departments, such as the condition of the 
Poor, the condition of Women, Finance, and so on 
(p. 83): see also the Classes, on p. no; 

Comparisons and Contrasts with other Ages (pp. 279, 
281, 291). 

7i 



72 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

And so with other subjects. We have a Composition 
on Cicero as an Individual, and here again we find no 
Authorities or Evidences, no ' Hindrances' (p. 97), no 
Comparisons and Contrasts (p. 104), and no account of 
his Family and Social Life, and so on. 

Obviously there is need of something to suggest 
these Headings. 



CHAPTER XIV. ADVANTAGES OF GENERAL 
LISTS OF HEADINGS. 



The General Lists, which will be given below, will at 
first look like a system of cramming. They will seem 
as if they were giving information in a very compact 
form. But as a matter of fact they do not give in- 
formation, but ask questions, namely " What do you 
know about the following topic?" It is as if an 
architect, before he began his house, were to have a 
complete list of rooms which might be wanted. If 
he had such a list he could, without trouble, select 
those rooms which he wanted, and reject the rest, 
whereas otherwise he might possibly forget something 
of importance. This is the real advantage of a 
General List. 

Or, again, a General List may be compared to a 
shop full of things. The customer goes in and asks 
for (let us say) ten things, and, if the shop has a 
complete stock, those ten things are easily selected, 
especially if the shop is neatly arranged. In the shop 
there may be thousands of things which are not used 
at all, but the great point is that those which are to be 
used can be selected at once and without waste of time 
or trouble. In travelling, in the same way, it is usually 
much better to take too many things than too few. 

i. The advantages of having a General List of Head- 
ings for an Essay or Speech do not appear until one 
73 



74 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

has tried to write the Essay without such a List (see 
p. 79). Supposing a class at a School had prepared a 
lesson, and then the schoolmaster said " Write out what 
you remember of the lesson ", the result would be very 
muddled and very incomplete. As a matter of fact, 
the master asks questions. He picks the lesson to 
pieces, and asks about its various parts. The questions 
which he asks are not themselves information, but a means 
of eliciting information. 

2. The Lists will of course differ for different Essays 
and Speeches, but it is surprising to find to how many 
topics the two Lists on pp. 83 and 92 will apply. A 
collection of such topics is given on p. 183, and it might 
almost be said that these two General Lists are sufficient 
for the main Headings of most topics \ and that then a 
List of Sub-Headings for these main Headings might 
perhaps be mastered in addition. 

When once the Lists have been thoroughly learnt 
and practised, then they can easily be applied to almost 
any given subject. It will not make much difference 
whether the subject be Aristocracy, Democracy, or 
Monarchy (in political Essays or Speeches). The Head- 
ings will be very much the same for all. It does not 
matter very much whether the Person be Caesar or 
Pericles or Napoleon or Nelson : the General Headings 
for the Individual, and for the special departments, 
such as War, will apply to all these equally. 

3. And, if these Lists are mastered, there will be no 
Omission of any important subject. One of the most 
maddening features of an Examination, for the examined, 
is that he seldom puts down all that he knows : he may 
really know the subject, but at the particular moment 
he cannot brin^ it to the surface of his mind. His 



GENERAL LISTS OF HEADINGS 75 

mind may be compared to a pond, and the information 
which he wants to get hold of may be compared to 20 
fishes. The 20 fishes are in the pond all right, but the 
difficulty is to catch them, and in an Examination the 
chance of ' catching ' is extraordinarily small. It is 
possible to catch 15 out of the 20, but how are the 
other 5 to be secured ? In an Essay or Speech exactly 
the same difficulty will be found. Probably my Head- 
ings are really well known to the Essayist or Speaker, 
but at the time he cannot recall them, and so he omits 
them altogether. Now with a General List like mine 
he could not possibly omit any Heading on which he 
could really say something of importance. 

4. And this is not all : not only are there fewer 
Omissions, but a great deal of time is saved which 
would otherwise have been spent in searching for 
Headings, as if one were trying to collect pigs in 
clover. 

5. As we have seen on p. 44, Essays and Speeches 
often suffer from bad Arrangement of their Ideas. 
Now if the General List contains the Ideas in a 
fairly good order (as it should do), then the trouble in 
Arranging these Ideas may be nearly saved. Of course 
each Composition will demand a certain amount of 
re-arrangement ; but still the same Arrangement may 
be suitable for a great number of Compositions, up to 
a certain point. In fact, the Writer or Speaker will 
start at a very great advantage. Already he has a 
number of pigeon-holes, with labels all arranged- in 
a fairly good order. What he has to do now, in 
Collecting his Ideas, is to put into each pigeon-hole 
that which he knows about the particular topic. After- 
wards he may have to re-arrange ; but not nearly to 



76 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

the same extent as if his Ideas had been Collected 
' higgledy-piggledy '. 

6. If you have the General List it is wojtderfully 
easy to reject that which is not wanted. A man who 
goes into a shop like Whiteley's should not object and 
say " There are too many things here ; I don't want 
them all". He should choose just what he does want. 
He may have to see a number of things which he does 
not want, but the time wasted in this way is quite small. 
Anyhow he is very unlikely to omit anything of im- 
portance. 

7. Nowadays, also, there is an additional advantage. 
We are beginning to regard subjects from many more 
different points of view. If you read an ' up-to-date ' 
Newspaper (like the "Daily Mail"), and compare it 
with the History of Greece by ancient or even modern 
Historians, you will at first be inclined to think that there 
are many more interests in the world and many more 
departments of life than there have ever been before. 
But this is only half the truth. As a matter of fact, 
many of the interests have been there all along, 
only Writers and Speakers have not noticed them. A 
great deal is included now which was once thought 
unimportant. The lower Classes, for instance, receive 
their share of attention, and health and sanitary ar- 
rangements are another topic which would not have 
been considered in ancient times. Hence the modern 
Essayist or Speaker has to include a great number of 
Headings which the ancient Essayist or Speaker would 
never have troubled about. The modern world sees that 
the things which are mentioned are really important. 
There is a great deal to be discussed besides War, 
Religion, Government, and the gossip of the Court. 



GENERAL LISTS OF HEADINGS 77 

It is not meant that all Headings which you discuss 
are of equal importance : but it is meant that, if you 
go on in a haphazard method and put down just what 
comes into your head, you are as likely as not to leave 
out some Heading which really may be twice as 
important as what you have put in. Every day it 
becomes more and more unscientific to omit ; and what 
may be unimportant now may in future years come to 
have its importance brought prominently forward. 

To prove this, let anyone take " Whitaker's Almanack v 
and pick out from the last two years the events, let us 
say ten of them, which he thinks will be most important 
twenty years hence. Very likely only three of his 
events will be remembered then ; as to the other seven, 
posterity may pass over them as being trivial. 

8. There is yet another reason for General Lists being 
valuable ; and that is that they encourage Fairness. 
On p. 150 foil, we shall see that Fallacies are mostly 
due to some kind of Omission. And what looks very 
like dishonesty and unfairness may in reality be 
ignorance or forgetfulness. Now the chance of such 
Omissions, and therefore the chance of such Fallacies, 
is minimised if the General Lists be used. 

9. These Lists also save a great deal of trouble in 
learning* as the following example will show. Suppos- 
ing we have learnt once for all the advantages of the 
supreme rule of one man, for instance, of Augustus 
at Rome, and supposing we have made a General List 
of those advantages, and have learnt this List, then, 
when we come later on to deal with any other good 
ruler like Pericles at Athens, or Peter the Great in 

* In this they might be compared with Mathematical Formulas, e.g. for 
Arithmetical Progression. 



78 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC 

Russia, or the German Emperor to-day, we should have 
a certain amount of our Ideas already found for us : 
we should have a number of things which the particu- 
lar ruler might have done, and we shall just have to ask 
ourselves, " Did he actually do so-and-so ? " Of course 
the difficulty is to choose as our starting-point that 
instance which is as near as possible to a complete List. 
If we needed a complete list of virtues, we should have 
no difficulty in our choice of an instance. 

As contrasted with this, I notice many Books (of 
recent date) which give Outlines of Essays. They 
give Headings for hundreds of separate Essays, but 
no General Headings for a few Types of Essays. You 
find a Skeleton-Essay on ' Democracy ' : well and good. 
But the Skeleton-Essay on 'Aristocracy' (or 'The House 
of Lords') is given as something quite distinct. There is 
no attempt to say — 'The Headings A, B, C, D, E . . ., viz. 
Causes, Hindrances, Comparisons, etc., are common to 
both these Essays, and in fact to a whole class of Essays, 
including even (see p. 96) Essays on Individuals '. 

But, to return to what we said before, the chief 
advantage of a General List is that it almost does 
away with the chance of Omission. There are many 
people who do not speak until they are spoken to, 
or even until they are asked a question, and then they 
suddenly seem to blossom out. I remember one case 
of a man, whom I had never heard discussing cricket : 
when I asked him questions, however, I found that he 
knew nearly all the general results and important 
details of the leading matches of the last few years. 
And there are many people who are just the same 
in Essay-writing or Speaking. They need ' drawing 
out,' and these Lists will help to draw them out. 



CHAPTER XV. HEADINGS FOR AN ESSAY, ETC., 
ON A PERIOD : WITH A RHYME. 



When a Period is to be reviewed, when two Periods 
are to be compared, and in many other kinds of Essays 
(such as the Influences of Geography, the Sphere of 
Government, the Results of War, the Causes of Success), 
it is absolutely essential to have a more or less complete 
List of Headings. 

I observe that many excellent Schemes or Skeletons 
of Essays have been published lately : but they are all 
for individual Essays (e.g. a Scheme for an Essay on 
'The Age of Louis XIV.'). There is little or no 
attempt to give a General List of Headings applicable 
to any and every Period : cp. p. ?S. 

The value of such a List cannot be estimated except 
by contrast. Try to review the Age of Louis XIV., or 
any Age, without such a List, and see how many 
Headings you can get. Probably there will not be 
more than three-quarters of those which are given 
here. You will have omitted many ; and these will 
not necessarily be the unimportant Headings. You 
will have omitted several which, when once you are 
reminded of them, you will at once agree to be very 
important indeed : to prove what I say, make the 
experiment. 



79 



8o IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Now probably (unless you remember the previous 
Chapter) you will not have mentioned the Evidences, 
a review of every Class, the Period Before, the Period 
After, and so on. 

If, however, you had had the List in front of you, 
you would have omitted no Heading of any great 
importance. All your knowledge on the subject would 
have been drawn out. 

In the following List (for the many uses of which 
see p. 133) notice the opposites or Contrasts [in square 
Brackets]. For the List as a Rhyme, see p. 83. 

Headings for a Period, etc. 

[Interest of the Subject : see p. 255.] 

Evidences. 

Authorities (and Faults) 139 

points of view (Bias, etc.) 140 

other Evidences 145 

Fallacies 150 

Geography (and Geology) 107 

Public Works 108 

People 

of every Class no 

Communication and intercourse [or want of it] in 
Unions, large or small [or disunion] in 

State-Government [or Local, or Family, etc., 

Government, or Independence, or Anarchy] 113 
Order [or disorder] 115 

Justice and Law [or injustice and oppression] ... 115 
Rights 116 

Virtues [or Vices] 99 

Religion [or Scepticism, etc.] 116 



HEADINGS FOR AN ESSAY ON A PERIOD 81 

Aims and thoughts 102 

Customs 119 

Capacities [or weak points] 98 

Education [or the want of it] 117 

Language 118 

Literature 131 

Philosophy 119 

Sciences, Arts, Inventions 119 

Social Life and manners, and Home-life 119 

women 

dress 

Health [or illness] 120 

Occupations [or idleness] ; e.g. 

commerce 120 

industries 

professions 

trades 
Wealth [or poverty] 122 

Finance and taxation 122 

Other Peoples, connected in various ways, e.g. 

subjects 123 

colonies 

allies and friends 

visitors 

traders 

enemies 
War [or Peace or diplomacy or compromise] ... 124 

Army 125 

Navy 125 

Previous Period 126 

Subsequent Period 125 

Changes in the Period itself [or stagnation] 127 

stage of Progress 127 

G 



82 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC 

Leading men and women 128 

Parallels and Comparisons 279, 281 

Contrasts 291 

Objections and Exceptions 

Most of the above Headings may (see p. 362 foil.) 
become little Essays in themselves, and have Sub- 
Headings of their own. Some of these Sub-Headings 
may in their turn become little Essays and have 
Sub-sub- Headings of their own. 



HEADINGS FOR AN ESSA Y ON A PERIOD 83 



I give the List here in the form of a Rhyme : 
for the best way of learning such Rhymes, see p. 88. 

Give Evidences, points of view, and Fallacies (alas ! ) ; 
Geography, and Public Works ; the folk, of every Class, 
the Intercourse, the Individual, Unions (large or small), 
State-Government, and Order, Justice, Rights ; and 

Virtues all ; 
Religion, aims, thoughts, customs, powers, and Educa- 
tion's parts ; 
Language and Letters, Wisdom ; then the Sciences, and 

Arts, 
and Inventions ; social life, home-life, and women, 

dress, and Health, 
Occupations (commerce, industries, professions, trades) ; 

and Wealth ; 
Finance ; then Other Peoples in some way connected tell 
(subjects, allies, and colonies, and enemies as well) 
by marriage, intercourse, and trade, and travel, and 

by War ; 
View th' Army, Navy ; then the Ages After and Before, 
Changes within the Age itself, and stage of Progress 

state ; 
Chief People ; give Quotations ; lastly recapitulate. 
Many Headings have their Contrasts, and Comparisons ; 

thus Rome 
had Wealth, but also poorer folk, and so have we at 

home. 

For Rhymes giving some of the Sub-Headings of 
these Main Headings, see p. 139, etc. 



CHAPTER XVI. VARIOUS USES FOR THE 
PERIOD-HEADINGS. 



For the use and value of all General Lists, I refer to 
p. 73 foil. Here I wish to point out once more (see 
p. 79) the value of these Headings, which I call Period- 
Headings, and which are collected in a Rhyme on p. 83 ; 
that is to say, such Headings as Government, Religion, 
Education, Commerce, War. 

1. To begin with, we may use them when we have 
to describe the Period of some great man, of some 
great event, or of a certain year or number of years. 

2. Of course, if two Periods are to be Compared or 
Contrasted, the Headings will be equally to the point. 

But they cover a far wider ground than this. 

3. If we have to give the Results of some Influence, 
let us say of Geography, Religion, Slavery, Naval 
Power, War, Monarchy (Democracy, etc.), Commerce, 
Industries, Wealth, Colonisation, Inventions, Literature, 
etc., or the effects of certain Individuals, we shall need 
to have before us a wide field : we shall need to survey 
the whole of life, as it were, and to ask, ' Was such-and- 
such a sphere affected, e.g. the position of women, the 
morals of the People, and so on ? ' Here the Period- 
Pleadings will again be needed. 

4. If, on the other hand, we have to give 

{a) the Causes and Helps (and perhaps the Means), or 
(b) the Hindrances and Obstacles to the Influences 
of Geography, Religion, etc., then again the Period- 
Headings must be utilised. 

84 



USES FOR THE PERIOD-HEADINGS 85 

For example, what were the Causes of Rome's 
Success, Rome's Failure, etc., or what were the signs 
and Characteristics of that Failure? Here, unless we 
have a long List of such Headings before us, we may 
easily pass over some Cause or some Obstacle of great 
moment, e.g. Geography. 

The Causes of Unity (the Bonds of Union) 
e.g. between England and America, or England and 
Australia, might also be included here. 

5. What is the proper Sphere of Government? How 
far should Government ' interfere ' ? Here we need to 
know how far Government has interfered or can inter- 
fere : we need to review the various departments of 
life. In other words, we need the Period- Headings. 

6. In Essays on Persons (see p. 96 foil.) we have to 
consider what helped or hindered the Persons in their 
development ; and of course many things might have 
contributed. We have to review their surroundings, 
their ' Environment '. We need the Period-Headings in 
case we should omit any important influence, such as 
Geography. 

And this applies equally when we have to consider 
the Effects which these Persons had upon their surround- 
ings and upon later Periods. 

7. Proverbs are often set for Essays, and so are Quota- 
tions of a general character, such as ' Where ignorance 
is bliss, 'tis folly to be wise ', or ' No single man ever 
yet altered the character of a Nation for any length 
of time.' Here, once more, we need Instances from 
every possible source : we need not only to review 
past and present ' History ', but also to review its 
various departments, such as Religion. Otherwise 
we may be leaving out just those very Instances 



86 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

which we really know best and which would be most 
telling. 

8. Even now I have not exhausted the uses to which 
the Period-Headings may be put. They will be wanted 
also when we have to consider the Evidences for various 
statements. For, as we shall see on p. 145, in many 
subjects Geography, Religion, Language, etc., may all 
be valuable Evidences, besides (see p. 149) affording 
valuable Suggestions. 

9. If we wish to be able to take a fair, that is to say 
a comprehensive view of many questions great or small, 
we may well set these Period-Headings before us before 
we venture to form our opinion and to tell it to others. 
We may think that a certain Political Party is right 
in a certain line of action until we have examined that 
line of action in the light of, e.g. Geography, Morality, 
Education, Commerce, the Subsequent Periods, and so 
on. Until this light has been thrown on the subject 
we may, for all we know, be seeing only one side of the 
subject. 



CHAPTER XVII. HOW TO LEARN LISTS 
OF HEADINGS. 



A. How to Learn Headings. 

For general advice as to How to Learn and " How to 
Remember ", I must refer to a book on the subject, to be 
published, in February, 1900, by Messrs. Warne & Co. 
I should suggest the following helps here. 

1. First of all try to work out the Headings for your- 
self, using common sense, Comparisons, Contrasts, etc. 
Then correct and add after an interval, and refer to the 
General Lists in Chapters XV., etc. Observe where 
you have omitted anything, and make notes of these 
weak points, and pay extra attention to these omitted 
Headings. 

2. Then write out the full List from memory, and 
afterwards look again at the List and make additions 
and corrections. 

3. With the List in front of you, apply it to various 
subjects. For instance, apply the List of Headings for 
an Essay on a Person (p. 94), to yourself or to anyone 
else that you know. You will find that, when you have 
used the Plan or Scheme a good many times, you will 
be able to do an Essay on another person without 
a Plan in front of you at all. In fact, the more 
Instances you get for each Heading, and the more 
you make certain of a few Instances for each, to start 
with, the more indelibly the Headings themselves will 
become impressed upon your mind. 

87 



88 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

4. It is as well to try to reproduce the Lists of 
Headings at odd moments, for instance, in the train. 

5. For one List (see p. 108) I have suggested the 
system of learning by Initials : this I have found most 
useful in my own work. That is to say, one arranges 
the Headings in such an order that their Initials form 
some word or words, only it is always necessary to get 
the Headings thoroughly understood and grasped before 
one attempts this ' Initializing '. See, further, " How to 
Remember ". 

6. For some people, Rhymes will be the best means, 
but they also (see below) should not be allowed until the 
Headings have been thoroughly understood and fre- 
quently practised : then and not till then will the 
Rhymes be valuable. For a few Rhymes, to which 
the Reader can easily add many others, see pp. 36, 62, 
83, 92, etc. As to the ways of learning Rhymes, I 
shall now proceed to offer a few suggestions. 

B. How to Learn Rhymes. 

There is a rooted objection, in the minds of many, to 
the use of Rhymes as a means of fixing Ideas in the 
memory, and this too in spite of the fact that people are 
wont to remember the number of days in the various 
months, and many other things as well,* by means of 
Rhymes. The objectors say that Rhymes are never to 
be used as a help to the memory. 

Of course this is going ever so much too far, but it 
has some reason ; it is a very great mistake to learn 
Rhymes as most people learn them, that is to say by mere 
sounds, and as the parrot or the Phonograph learns 
Rhymes. The parrot or the Phonograph repeats 

* See " How to Remember " (to be published by Warne & Co.). 



HOW TO LEARN LISTS OF HEADINGS 89 

Rhymes absolutely correctly, but even the parrot seldom 
understands a word or an Idea. And this is how 
most boys and girls learn Poetry and other Rhymes 
at School. This way of learning is generally rather 
worse than useless. Not only does it take a long 
time for most people to learn Rhymes thus, but for 
most people the Rhymes even when learnt do not 
stay in the memory, and even if they do they are 
scarcely ready for use. 

The real way of learning a Rhyme, if good is to be 
got out of it, and if the Rhyme is worth learning, is 
to read the words slowly as if they were not a Rhyme at 
ally that is to say, to read them thinking only of the sense, 
and making no attempt whatever to learn the words as 
words or as sounds. It is best to say the words out 
loud and yet to think of the sense, and not to pass by 
any sentence until it has been understood. 

When the words do not convey a clear meaning, then 
you must stop and think what they do mean. You 
might think of some actual instance (see p. 160) : for 
example you might apply the idea to some particular 
example, or else work out the Contrast, which (see 
p. 291) will often throw light on the meaning. 

When you have read through the whole Rhyme very 
slowly, making sure that you understand the general 
sense of the whole of it, as well as the special sense 
and the connexion of the various parts, then put it 
aside for a time, and, after an interval, read it through 
again, ^not troubling to learn it but simply realising 
it. Do this over and over again at intervals, at first 
very slowly and with concentrated attention, and (for 
it cannot be repeated too often) with thorough under- 
standing. 



90 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

For the very important Resumee-method, see p. 354. 

After this has been done perhaps ten times, perhaps 
fifteen, not only will the Ideas and the sense be fixed 
in your mind as a valuable possession, but (curious as 
it may seem) the sounds will have been fixed in your 
mind as well. Without having made the slightest 
effort to learn the sounds, you will have learnt them 
merely by saying them out loud. Somewhat similarly, 
by hearing a tune often, you come to know it and to be 
able to reproduce it, without ever having consciously 
intended to know it. You take it into your brain willy 
nilly. 

Before beginning a fresh Rhyme, go over the old 
Rhyme once more, that is to say, make sure of the ground 
which you have already mastered, before you try to master 
fresh ground. The early Romans were very careful to 
make their conquests their very own, and to. secure them 
thoroughly, before they proceeded to fresh struggles and 
fresh conquests. 



CHAPTER XVIII. GENERAL HEADINGS FOR 
SPECIAL SUBJECTS (e.g. 
COLONISATION, OR WAR) : 
WITH A RHYME. 



MOST learners who are told to write an Essay on 
1 Monarchy', or 'Slavery', or 'Naval Power', etc., 
have no notion as to how they ought to treat the 
subject. It is so vague. The following Headings 
will form a List from which they may select. 

Let the reader apply these Headings to a subject 
like ' Government ', or ' Religion '. But let him first try 
to collect the Headings for an Essay on these two 
Subjects, without looking at the List. Then let him 
see the List applied, e.g. on p. 96. 



Here, as before, we have 
[The Interest of the subject] 
Evidences 

Authorities 

their failings 140 

Different points of view (Bias) 141 

Other Evidences 145 

Fallacies 150 

To these we now add :— 

Instances, including Extreme Instances 160 

Causes and helps 
Hindrances 

91 



9 2 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Description 

parts 

their connexions 

extent and sphere 
in time 
in place 

changes 

[different points of view, fallacies, etc. : see above] 

appearance [esp. as opposed to reality] 
Aims and hopes 
Effects 

immediate or ultimate 

good or bad 
Parallels, and Comparisons 

Contrasts 

This is a rough-and-ready List, merely for the 
Collection of Ideas. In the Essay itself of course the 
Instances and Examples would seldom come all in a 
lump at the beginning. 

Sub-Headings, and Headings for many Essays, 
in Ehyme. 

[View Evidences, Bias, and chief Fallacies expose.] 



'Neath the Main Headings Instances, then Helps and 
Causes range, 

and Hindrance ; next Description (parts and ties, ex- 
tent, and change, 

the standards and the points of view, appearance, aims 
and hopes) ; 

th' Effects ; Quotations, Contrasts, and Comparisons, 
and Tropes. 



CHAPTER XIX. HEADINGS FOR AN ESSAY, ETC., 
ON A PERSON. 



THE above Headings can be applied to a Person also : 
but the Headings for an Essay on a Person (e.g. Pericles, 
Cato, Watt, etc.) should be tried before the next page 

is read. 



Persons are mostly chosen for some notable feature 
or features : they are usually Generals, or Politicians, 
or Scientific men, or Philanthropists, etc. For Authors, 
see p. 129. But, though they may differ in their peculiar 
line of work, they must all be treated alike to a certain 
extent. 

The Rhyme (p. 92) was : — 

[View Evidences, Bias, and chief Fallacies expose.] 



''Neath the Main Headings Instances, then Helps and 

Causes range, 
and Hindrance ; next Description {parts and ties, extent, 

and change, 
the standards and the points of view, appearance, aims 

and hopes); 
th' Effects ; Quotations, Contrasts, and Comparisons, and 

Tropes. 

93 



94 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

This will give us : — 
Evidences 

Authorities 

Bias 141 

Faults and failings 140 

Other Evidences 145 

Fallacies , 150 

Instances 

here the Events of the life 96 

Helps and Causes 

heredity 96 

environment 96 

Hindrances 

do. 
Description and Individuality 

parts, and their connexion 97 

bodily or physical 98 

intellectual 98 

moral (virtues) 99 

extent, esp. of work 1 00 

changes during the life, and tendencies of the 

life 100 

standards of judgment 

different points of view 101 

appearance (as opposed to reality) 1 02 

aims and hopes 102 

especially as opposed to 
Effects 

immediate and later 104 

Parallels and Comparisons 104 

Contrasts 1 04 



CHAPTER XX. SUB-HEADINGS. 



IT might be as well that, at some time or other, each 
Main-Heading should be treated as a separate Essay. 
A good many have been roughly outlined in this Book 
(pp. 96 to 132) : the reader should try them all for him- 
self before he reads these pages. 

In an Essay on a Period, etc. (see p. 83), many of 
these Main-Headings will have to be treated as separate 
Essays, that is to say under many Headings there will 
be SUB-HEADINGS, which, if you have time, you will 
likewise not only Collect, but also Select, Underline, 
and Arrange. 

It is almost essential for you to work out these Sub- 
Headings (i.e. Headings under each Main- Heading) 
before you can judge which Main-Headings are more 
important and which are less important, and therefore 
before you can Underline and Arrange the Main- 
Headings themselves. It is as if you had a number 
of parcels, each of which you wished to put in the 
best and most convenient place for certain purposes. 
Before you could fix on the places of these parcels, 
you would have to examine their contents. 

The most useful List of Sub-Headings (e.g. Instances, 
Causes, Effects) will be found on p. 92. This List must 
assuredly be mastered, and on p. 87 are given sugges- 
tions as to hozv it should be mastered. 



95 



CHAPTER XXI. SUB-HEADINGS FOR AN 

ESSAY, ETC., ON A PERSON. 



SOME of the above Headings, for an Essay on a Person, 
may now be considered one by one and in more detail. 
The reader should first take the Headings, and should 
jot down Sub-Headings under each. My List is very 
scanty, and only suggests a few ideas out of hundreds ; 
his List should be much fuller than mine. 

Instances : the Events of the Persons life. 

These should be divided into Epochs, as far as 
possible. Certain crises and turning-points will pro- 
bably be conspicuous. 

Helps and Causes : — 

(i) Heredity must be made to include not only the 
father and mother, but also the ancestors further back. 
It is here that our Evidence for judging people is so 
very meagre : we know so little about any person's 
stock-in-trade in early life, that we should be very 
careful in passing sentence. And yet we. are wont to 
decide in a moment. 

(ii) Environment is the second cause of a Person 
being as he is, the first being Heredity, and the third 
being that mysterious something which] we may call 
Individuality (see ' Description '). 

Environment must include the places where the 
Person lives, the Age or Period (see p. 79 foil.), and, 
especially, the Groups among which he ' lives and moves 
96 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR ESSA YS ON PERSONS 97 

and has his being ' : these may be his Family-group, his 
School-group, his Friend- and Acquaintance-Group, his 
Business-Group, and so on. 

Hindrances will include these same two (or rather 
three) influences. They must by no means be neglected, 
for frequently a man's Individuality opposes or is 
opposed by his parents, or his conditions of life, or 
both. The life of Jesus is an excellent study in 
1 Hindrances ' of the second kind.* 

Description and Individuality. 

This is undoubtedly not only the most important part 
of the Essay on a Person, but also the most difficult 
part. For we can scarcely describe at all without 
criticising, and, as we have just seen, Criticism is apt 
to ignore a great many ' extenuating circumstances ' 
or the reverse, a great many disadvantages overcome 
or a great many advantages unused or misused. 

Man may be considered from at least three different 
points of view : in any one sphere he is liable to be 
regarded as ' a success ' or as ' a failure ', without neces- 
sarily being the same in the other two. He may be 
regarded as a ' physical ' success, e.g. as a fine football- 
player, while intellectually and morally he may be a 
grievous failure. Or he may be regarded as a brilliant 
genius, an ' intellectual ' success, while he is physically 
unhealthy and morally unhealthy — we see too many 
instances of this in the Literary men of to-day. Or he 
may be regarded as " an unhealthy smug " and " a stupid 
ass ", and yet be a stupendous ' moral ' success. 

The three spheres or parts may therefore be considered 
separately, to some extent, though the connexion between 
them should be pointed out wherever it is possible. 

* See also " Earnest Men" (published by Nelson and Co.). 
H 



93 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

As to the body, we may consider such Headings as 
' physique ', beauty, etc. 
health (see p. 120) 
rapidity, and promptitude (a somewhat different 

quality), 
endurance 
strength 

skill, and versatility (also a somewhat different 
quality). 
And we must consider the different ways in which 
the body can be used. Philip of Macedon is well worth 
a study in this respect, and so is Caesar. 

The Intellect can also be employed in many ways 
and in many directions, e.g. in Government, Law, 
Literature, Science, Commerce, War, etc. See the 
Various Headings on p. 83. 

It is important to notice some of the same Headings 
as above, e.g. 

an eye for beauty and harmony, etc. 
healthiness [as opposed to a morbid genius], 
rapidity, 

promptitude and readiness, 
endurance (and memory), 
strength, and energy, 
skill, 

versatility [here we must ask whether the Person 
was good at one thing or at many: Alcibiades, 
Caesar, and Gladstone, were versatile], 
proportion [as opposed to giving undue import- 
ance to some things], 
sound reasoning and inference, and " openminded- 

ness ", 
fairness [which is also a moral quality, being a love 
of truth]. 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR ESS A YS ON PERSONS 99 

Enjoyment is hard to class : one has to say what the 
Person liked and disliked, and how happy or unhappy 
he was. He may enjoy bodily or mental activity, for 
example, or virtue especially. 

The Moral qualities or Virtues cannot be severed 
from the Intellectual qualities. Thus the love of truth 
and the fearless search for truth are Moral as well as 
Intellectual. ' Openmindedness ' seems to me to be 
almost as much a Virtue as Purity. 

Again, true c physical ' Health seems to me to be as 
great a Virtue as Charity. I do not of course mean 
mere ' Muscle', but real Health which enables a man 
to work hard and well. It is seldom mentioned in the 
list of Virtues, however. 

It is not always remembered that the Virtues can 
be and should be seen in every department of life. 
Demosthenes and Burke and Dymond insisted that a 
Nation has a Code of Virtue (kindness, forgiveness, 
honesty, etc.) as strict as that of an Individual. There 
are many who deny this, e.g. for Politics and ' Business '. 
Their reasons are often ' of the earth, earthy ' : they are 
even muddy. 

Courage, steadfastness and perseverance, determination 
and energy [opp. to cowardice, to rashness, to weak- 
mindedness, to obstinacy, and to slackness]. 

Truth, truthfulness and Fairness, readiness to learn 
[opp. to lying and deceit, unfairness, implicit 
obedience to Custom, and Bias]. 

It is needless to say that the life of Jesus will give 
the best collection of Virtues. The Vices opposed to 
the Virtues often throw light on the nature of the 
Virtues, and some will be given in square brackets below. 

L.ofC. 



ioo IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Each Virtue (see p. 207) is a mean between two 
extremes (as Aristotle so justly said) : thus Courage 
is a Virtue, but at one extreme is Foolhardy Rashness, 
at the other Selfish Cowardice. 

A List of some Virtues. 

Kindness^ forgiveness, charitableness, kind correction 
[opp. to unkindness, malice, vengeance, and also 
mild acquiescence in evil, and over-clemency]. 
Self-sacrifice [opp. to selfishness]. 
Sympathy [opp. to want of sympathy, and narrow- 
ness]. 

Cheerfulness and hope [opp. to gloomy despair, and 
also to excessive hopefulness]. 
Optimism [opp. to pessimism]. 

Purity and Healthiness [opp. to impurity and morbid- 
ness, etc.]. 

Temperance and Self-control [opp. to obedience to 
the 'lower self 5 ]. 

Meekness [opp. to pugnacity, and also to mere selfish 
cowardice]. 

Extent and Sphere. Here we may consider the 
'sphere of activity', of body, intellect, morality, and 
enjoyment. 

Changes. Any of the 'parts' of a Person may 
change during his lifetime, e.g. his Intellect or his 
Morals. A man must not be considered as always 
a consistent actor, though, if we knew all the Causes 
and Conditions, we might be able to explain the 
Changes. The Tendency of a Person's life is a far 
more important question than his actual condition or 
action at any given time. 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR ESS A YS ON PERSONS 101 

Standards of Judgment. 

Often a very great mistake is made here : often a 
Person is judged by one Standard only. For instance, 
Cato may be judged 

(i) simply as a Roman of those days, i.e. he may 
be compared and contrasted with other Romans of 
those days ; or 

(ii) he may be judged by the standard of the present 
Age, or of the writer's Age. One writer wondered 
how Cato could have regarded slaves as mere chattels. 
It was the regular way of regarding slaves then. 

Or, again, 

(iii) the Ideal may be taken as the Standard. Of 
course Cato, like most of the ancients (except Epa- 
minondas and a few others), fell lamentably short. 

Other critics, again, change their Standard without 
a word of warning. Now they are considering Cato 
as an old Roman, and now they are judging him as 
if he had been a Nineteenth Century Englishman ; 
this is even more misleading than to keep to one 
single Standard. 

But, it may be asked, how are we to judge people? 
I suggest the following compromise, and it seems to 
combine the three Standards, and to be the fairest 
possible test for every individual case. 

"A certain Person, A, had such-and-such parents 
and ancestors, and lived in such-and-such an Age, 
and under such-and-such Conditions (p. 96). For 
such a man, under such conditions, there was a certain 
BEST POSSIBLE. How near did A come to this ' Best 
Possible'? What were his Tendencies, his Effects, 
and his Aims ? " 



io2 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

The Appearance must (as far as possible) be dis- 
tinguished from the Reality. Things are not always 
what they seem. 

The Aims and Motives and Hopes must also be 
considered as well as the Effects : failure in defending 
the right is better than many so-called 'successes'. 

Aims and Motives. 

Of the Aims of Writers, we have spoken above (p. 48). 
Here we need only consider the Aims and Motives that 
lead most people to do what they do. 

As we saw on p. 48, we are very apt to forget two 
points when we are asking " What were the Motives for 
this action?" We are apt to forget that the Motives 
may have been (a) mixed, and that (b) they may have 
changed even while the action was going on. Alexander 
the Great, for instance, did not invade the East and 
conquer the Persians simply for the sake of vengeance 
or glory : he had other aims, such as to get money, to 
unite the Greeks, etc. Having known Isocrates' views, 
he could scarcely have failed to have these Motives as 
well as the others. But, when he had finally conquered 
Darius' forces, and even before then, as he had to secure 
his rear by garrisons and colonies and roads etc., he 
may have wished to form a new Nation, a mixture of 
Greeks and Macedonians and Asiatics. 

The following List deserves a careful study. It 
proceeds from the lower to the highest Motives, though 
the highest Motives may come into play without the 
lower Motives ceasing : the higher may be added to 
the lower. Sometimes, however, the lower Motives 
practically give way to the higher. 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR ESSAYS ON PERSONS 103 

It is interesting to notice that precisely the same 
action may often be the result either of a purely selfish 
aim, or of a purely noble aim, or of a mixture of the 
two, or first of one and then of the other. A man, for 
example, may abstain from Alcohol simply in order to 
save his own health or even his life ; then he may 
continue to abstain not only for this reason but also 
in order that he may do better work ; then he may 
wish to set a good example to others as well, and to help 
them to do better work. Finally, this latter Motive 
may predominate. 

Chief Motives : — 

1. Slavish obedience to Custom and Authority. 

2. Desire to escape or avoid 

starvation, 

pain, 

poverty, 

discomfort, 

disgrace and unpopularity, and obscurity, 

vice, 

etc. 

3. Desire to get or keep 

food, 

pleasure, 

wealth, 

comfort, and luxury, 

fame, and popularity, 

virtue, 

etc. 

So far, 2 and 3 mean only to escape or avoid, to get 
or to keep, certain things in one's ow?t case. 
4 and 5 will be to help others to do the same. 



104 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

As to these ' others ', they may be 

(i) few, 

(ii) many (see the 'Groups', on p. 112), 
(iii) the majority, 
(iv) all mankind, 

(v) posterity also. 

Notice that the evils or blessings may affect 

(a) the body, 
(J?) the intellect, 
(c) the morals and character, 
(d) the happiness ; 

and that they may be sought not only for their own 
sake but for the sake of what they may bring with them 
or after them. 

It is most essential to study Motives if we wish to 
appeal to others and to influence them. Jesus' teaching 
shows that he ' knew what was in man '. 

A good Exercise would be to study the ' actions ' of 
others, as well as of oneself, and to classify the Motives 
under these Headings, making special allowance for 
the possibility of Mixed Motives. 

The immediate Effects are never the full Effects (see 
p. 125). Often the full Effects can scarcely be summed 
up for years or generations afterwards, even in so far as 
we can trace them for ourselves. And of course we can 
only trace a part of them. 

Parallels, Comparisons; and Contrasts may serve to 
emphasise and make clear the prominent points (see 
Philip and Napoleon, p. 281), to give interest to the 
subject, and also to 'show off' information which you 
have acquired. 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR ESSA YS ON PERSONS 105 

Here, if anywhere, the advice "not to search for 
Comparisons, but only to use them if they come 
naturally into your mind" is singularly out of place. 
In fact, a careful search is a most excellent exercise 
and may produce very valuable results. The chances 
are that a Comparison will not occur at all ' of its own 
accord'. See further p. 281 foil. 

If the Person happened to be a General, then it 
would be necessary to know, among other things, the 
chief characteristics of good Generals : later on (p. 129) 
we shall treat of Authors, and the chief characteristics 
of good Authors. If space permitted, we should touch 
on the chief characteristics of great Scientific men, 
Statesmen, etc. But here we must be content to say a 
few words about Generals. 

1. A good General keeps Discipline in his forces, and 
welds the forces together so that they act in harmony. 
Personal example (such as a simple active life) may do 
much. 

2. He must have a sound knowledge of Geography, of 
mankind in general, and in particular of his own troops 
and officers, and the enemy's troops and officers. He 
must know the weak and strong points of both sides, 
the resources, etc. 

3. He must be original, and yet must seek for advice, 
and take it, if necessary. 

4. His plans must be far-reaching and not plans for 
the immediate future : and, if necessary, he must be 
able to conceal them. He must see to the safety of 
himself and his troops, especially in case of defeat. 

5. Versatility is a fine quality in a General : to be 
able now to act with lightning rapidity, like Alexander, 



io6 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

and now to wait with snail-like patience, like Philip or 
Fabius, to be able to adapt oneself suddenly to new 
and unexpected conditions — this is essential. 

6. Not less essential is careful preparation and pro- 
vision of food, arms and ammunition, communications, 
connexions between the various forces, all in case of 
either victory or defeat. 

7. Only the most consummate genius and instinct 
can take the place of a wide personal experience, as well 
as a wide theoretical study, of offensive and defensive 
war. 

8. The merits or faults .must not be judged by the 
immediate effects. A present victory may bring in its 
train a later defeat, and a present defeat and loss of 
life may be the only way of securing ultimate victory or 
even safety. 

It is needless to give a list of great Generals : from 
Epaminondas, Philip, and Alexander, Flamininus, 
Fabius, and Hannibal, to Nelson, Napoleon, Welling- 
ton, and Kitchener and others to-day, the list is full 
of useful illustrations. 



CHAPTER XXII. SUB-HEADINGS FOE 

THE PERIOD-HEADINGS. 



FOR the Authorities, Evidences, Points of View, Fallacies, 
and other Evidences, see pp. 139, 145, 150. 

Geography (including Geology) is a Heading very 
frequently neglected. If we wished to estimate its 
influences, e.g. on Roman History, or on English History, 
we should need some systematic plan of Sub-Headings. 
The reader might try to jot down these Headings for 
himself before looking at the List below. # 

* % * ■':- ■:":- * 

List of the ' Divisions ' or Parts of Geography a?id 
Geology. These should be applied to a country like 
England, if they are to be properly understood. 

1 Neighbours \ in the widest sense, i.e. Peoples who 
are near enough to affect the history of the People 
itself. Surrounding influences can also be classed here 
(e.g. the Gulf Stream). The position in the World or 
Continent etc. should be noted. 

Boundaries, e.g. Sea, Mountains, Rivers, etc. 

Shape, and ' Direction '. 

Size, esp. as compared with other Countries. 

Surface and Scenery. 

The Surface may be flat or rough or hilly, dry or 
1 watery ' ; the level (above the sea) is also important. 

In looking over the Country from a balloon, we 
should also be struck by the presence or absence of 
towns and buildings. 

The means of Communication, e.g. rivers, would also 
strike one. And see ' Public Works ', below. 

Products, in the widest sense, may include Vegetable, 
Animal, and Mineral Products. These deserve careful 
107 



10S IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

study, since much of the history of a Country depends 
on its Products. 

Under c Vegetable ' Products, the grains and fruits are 
to be remembered, and also the Wood (for ships, etc.). 

Of Animals we need not give a List. 

Minerals will include Stone (a product of enormous 
importance for buildings, etc.) as well as Coal, and the 
Metals. 

The Air and Climate, etc. 

The Air may be dry or damp, clear or foggy, hot 
or warm or cool or cold. 

Here, especially, and also with regard to the Surface 
and Scenery, it is necessary to notice whether there is 

Monotony or Variety in different parts of the Country, 
or at different seasons of the year. 

The Absence of certain features is also suggestive. 
Very often we have to contrast our Country with 
another before we can realise what has been the 
result of our Country not having had certain features 
(e.g. excessive cold). 

. The above Headings are well worth remembering. 
Their initials are N.B., S.S.S., PAVA. 

Public Works. 

In England to-day the Public Works, e.g. the roads 
and buildings, must be reckoned as part of our ' Geo- 
graphy'. Though the work of man, they have yet 
become as much a part of our land as the trees are, 
and (alas !) even more so. We are apt to look upon 
our Geography as fields and trees and rivers : but, 
for many millions of us, the Geography is the city 
with its streets and lights and buildings. The Public 
Works cannot be treated simply as Geography, however. 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR PERIOD-HEADINGS 109 

The following List will apply chiefly to early ages. 
As time goes on, the Public Works (such as Libraries, 
and School-buildings) become more and more numerous. 

Among those which are connected with Water^ are the 
following : — 

canals, reservoirs (aqueducts, etc.) \ 

baths ; 

bridges ; 

harbours ; 

drainage ; 

ships. 
For War and Defence, besides 

ships of war, etc., we have 

fortifications, such as towers and walls ; 

armour, and weapons. 
For Communication, etc., besides 

canals, etc. (see above), we have 

streets and roads ; 

railways ; 

postal arrangements ; 

lights. 
For Health, etc., we have, besides 

drainage, baths, etc. (see above), 

parks and open spaces ; 

Gymnasiums, etc., 

granaries. 
For Education, etc., we have 

Schools ; 

Libraries ; 

Public Statues ; 

Museums, Art-Exhibitions, etc. ; 

Concert-Halls, Lecture-Rooms. 
Miscella?ieous works would be 

Monuments ; 

Churches ; 

Buildings for Meetings, e.g. Town-halls, Houses of 
Parliament ; 

Prisons ; 

Mines. 



IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 



The People of Every Class. 

Under ' Fallacies ' (p. 1 50) we see how apt Writers and 
others are to judge of the whole by some one or more 
of its parts (especially if these parts be very prominent), 
and to omit the other parts : in other words, to ignore 
the Law of iWerages. We know how the Egyptians, for 
example, were classed as 'highly civilised people', because 
the Few, the members of the upper Classes, were highly 
civilised. If we take the average, and include the lower 
Classes, the labourers and slaves, we shall probably 
change our opinion. Those who laud to the skies the 
Civilisation of ' Greece ' are apt to forget that many 
parts of Greece (e.g. Acarnania and Epirus) were quite 
uncivilised, and that even in Athens the women and 
slaves would bring down the average very considerably. 
And they must be included. And so it is with our own 
country : those who are puffed up with national pride, 
e.g. at our huge Navy and Commerce, should read 
Wallace's " Wonderful Century ", and remember that 
London has slums. 

The Classes most commonly neglected are Children , 
Women, Servants and Slaves, and Resident Foreigners. 

A complete List of the various Classes will not be 
attempted here : but it should be tried by the reader. 
Some of the 'Occupations' will be found on p. 120. 

The following points generally call for some con- 
sideration : they should be applied to England and to 
other Countries, for practice. 

(i) The Sources of the population, e.g. immigration ; 

(ii) The numbers, esp. in proportion to the size of the 
country. Emigration, etc., may come in here. 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR PERIOD-HEADINGS in 

(iii) The distribution, in towns, suburbs, villages, open 
country, on the sea, and abroad. 

(iv) The relative size and importance of the Classes : 
the importance may appear in Politics, in Society, in 
War, etc. It may also change (see p. 127 below). 

(v) The subdivisions of the various Classes, the Em- 
ployments, and the Cross-divisions ; are to be noticed ; 
and also 

(vi) The relations of the different Classes, whether 
it be friendly help and co-operation, or opposition. 

Communication, not only between Classes, but also 
between Individuals, and between them and other 
Peoples, is to be noticed. 

Communication may of course be by river or canal 
or lake or sea, by path or street or road or mountain 
pass, by railway, and so on. Needless to say, free 
Communication may do much to unite the People and 
to open their minds. 

Unions, and the Individual. 

As civilisation advances, a very marked feature is 
that (see p. 135) 

(i) on the one hand many Unions grow larger and 
larger ; 

(ii) on the other hand the Individual is more and 
more recognised as an Individual, a Unit, with rights 
and privileges and choice of his own, instead of merely 
as a member, e.g., of a Family : see p. 116. 

One of the meanings of the words ' Freedom ' and 
'Liberty' (words so often misused) is that the Individual 
has a conscience of his own, which he ought to obey 
rather than such commands as go against his conscience. 



112 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Among Unions may be mentioned the following 
groups: of course the same person may belong to 
several groups. 

Family, Clan, and Relations ; 

Village, and Tribe ; 

City-state, Town, and Locality generally ; 

Nation ; 

'• Occupation '-Groups, e.g. Groups according to 

business or profession [politics, war, etc.] ; 

pleasure or exercise [a powerful group in 
England] ; 

social life [wealth, culture and education, etc.] ; 
Religion. 

We shall have to ask how far the Individual is 
independent, and how far he depends on one or more 
of these and other Groups and its Customs, etc. In 
other words, what claims has each Group upon the 
Individual ? 

A splendid Essay-Question is : " What are the 
Bonds of Union within any particular Group, or 
between any two or more Groups ? " For example, 
"What are the Bonds of Union between England 
and America [or Australia] to-day?" 

Here we should start with the Family as the basis, 
because (see p. 65) it is better known to us. The 
reader should work it out first by himself. 



We only need to mention here a very few out of 
many Bonds — 

(i) connexion by blood and marriage; and by tra- 
ditions ; 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR PERIOD-HEADINGS 113 

(ii) similarity of 

appearance, 

dress, 

manners, 

speech and sayings, 
(iii) locality and its associations, including the 
1 home ' ; 

(iv) Government (by the father, or mother) ; 
(v) similarity of interests ; 

(vi) ? hostility to, or jealousy of, some other Family ; 
(vii) the habit for a Family to be closely united 
together ; it is partly an instinct also ; 
(viii) intercourse ; 
(ix) religion. 

There are many other Bonds of Union, which the 
reader should work out carefully in odd moments, 
and then apply, e.g. to the Bonds of Union between 
England and America. 

State-Government. 

This by itself will form a vast Essay, and even 
one kind of Government alone (e.g. Aristocracy) is 
a large topic. Only a few Sub- Headings, therefore, 
can be suggested here, in addition to those on p. 92 
foil. (e.g. Helps and Causes, Hindrances, Aims, Effects). 

1. First of all, as opposed to State-Government, we 
may have Party-Government or Government by a 
single person, Local-Government (e.g. in Counties or 
Districts), Tribal or Family-Government, Individual 
Independence (such as Herbert Spencer advocates), 
and Anarchy. 

On the other hand, we can have above the State- 



ii4 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Government, League - Government, or International- 
Government (like that of the United States). Some 
day there may be a World-Government. 

2. An excellent Essay-Question would be ' What is 
the Sphere of State-Government, and what ought it to 
be?' The Period-Headings (see p. 83) should here be 
gone through one by one, e.g. Communication, Unions, 
Order, Justice, Rights, Morality, War, etc. 

It is well worth considering how far the State-Govern- 
ment ought or ought not to 'interfere' in certain 
departments : Herbert Spencer seems to be in favour 
of the smallest amount of interference by any Govern- 
ment. But much depends on the character of the 
Government (ours is partly a Government by the elected 
Rich), on the State of Civilisation, etc. There seems 
little doubt that, if the Government is intelligent, it 
can ( interfere ', better than any other power, in matters 
like Health, Education, War, etc. But Commerce, Re- 
ligion, and other spheres, are far more doubtful. 

So far, then, we have : — 1. Contrasts to State-Govern - 
meat ; 2. Sphere of State-Governments. 
We might then consider 

3. Who govern ? 

4. How are they (a) chosen, 

(b) supported, 

(c) checked? 

5. How long do they govern ? 

6. By what means ? 

7. How well, or badly ? 

8. The Appearance is often to be distinguished from 
the Reality (see p. 155). Thus our own Government is 
often classed as a limited Monarchy, though the Queen's 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR PERIOD-HEADINGS 115 

power is chiefly Social ; Rome at one time was governed 
practically by the Senate, but theoretically by the Popular 
Assemblies. 

Of the above Headings, No. 4 (a) and (b\ the Basis of 
the Government, deserves a special Essay to itself. The 
Period-Headings (p. 83) will suggest many of the Bases 
of any Government, e.g. of the Roman Senate when 
it was in its primer for instance, 

Unity ; 

Excellence (intellectual and moral) ; 

Religion ; 

Character (of the Romans) ; 

Custom ; 

Wealth ; 

War; 

etc. 

Order, and Justice. 

Similar Headings would apply here. For we might 

1. contrast disorder and injustice; 

and then consider 

2. the sphere of Justice, i.e. the offences with which 
it deals, and the penalties which it inflicts. 

3. Who judge, and who decide the penalties ? 

4. How are they {a) chosen, 

(b) supported, 

(c) checked? 

5. For how long do they hold power ? 

6. What are the processes? 

7. Are the decisions fair or unfair? 

8. Is Justice expensive or cheap? 

9. Is it the same for all? and so on. 



n6 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Rights of Individuals, as well as of ' Groups' 

We may consider how the Rights are enforced, e.g. 

by the Government and Law and the Executive, or by 

Custom. 

Among the Rights of Individuals may be : — 
safety of person and property ; 
healthy conditions for body and mind ; 
education ; 
freedom of 

movement (locomotion) ; 

speech ; 

action (' the freedom to do right ', ' the liberty 
of conscience ') ; 

intercourse ; 

redress ; 

etc. 

A good many of these will be opposed to an arbitrary 
and 'interfering' State-Government. 
For Virtues, see p. 99, above. 

Religion. 

As opposed to real Religion we have not only 
Superstition and mere Ceremonies, but also Scepticism, 
etc. 

We may consider here : — ■ 
the God or gods ; 
the priests, and how far they form a separate 

class or caste; 
the places of worship ; 
the ceremonies, festivals, etc. : 
the expenditure of money and time. 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR PERIOD-HEADINGS 117 

The beliefs must be often distinguished from 

(a) the beliefs or spirit of alien Religions ; 

(b) Scepticism, free thought, and Philosophy ; 

(c) Science ; 

(d) the actual life and ' works ' of the people. 

This last is the most important distinction of all. 
No Religion, perhaps, has ever shown such a contrast 
between its real spirit, and the actual lives of most 
of those who profess to hold it, as Christianity. 

Of course here, as under most of these Headings, 
the Effects are to be estimated, e.g. the Effects on 
Government, on Virtue, and on the Intellect. The 
actual Effects of the Religion should be worked out 
as a separate Essay, the Headings on p. 83 being 
taken one by one. 

For the Aims and Motives, see p. 102, above. 

For the Thoughts and Ideas, see p. 98, which will also 
give some ideas about — 

the Powers and Capacities, For the Physical or 
Bodily powers, see p. 98. 

Education. 

In its widest sense Education would not be a know- 
ledge of hosts of isolated and useless facts, all more 
or less "the same size", but would be opposed to the 
state of the person whose mind, body, and character 
are undeveloped. People are usually said to have 
had an Education even if they have never learnt 
how to use their limbs rightly, how to keep healthy, 
how to earn a livelihood, how to make use of what 
they have learnt and what they can observe for them- 



u8 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

selves, how to draw inferences, how to speak moderately- 
well, and — among numbers of other signs of an all- 
round Education — how to be happy and to do good 
to others. 

The best Means of Education deserve a careful study, 
not only for the purposes of Essay-Writing and Speak- 
ing, but for the purposes of daily life. Among them 
are the following : — 

Health and Exercise. I put these first, for they should 
begin with the earliest years and be kept up till nearly 
the end of life. Some Exercises are better than others. 
I consider games like Football to be the best. 

Reading (books, papers, etc.). 

Learning (at Schools, Lectures, etc.) : among the 
subjects should be 

Physiology and Health, 
Natural History, 
Music and Art, 
etc. 
Lntercourse, of the People with one another, and with 
those of other Nations (by travel, etc.). 
Free speech and free writing. 

These are only a few Headings out of many. Some 
day I hope to write more fully on the subject. 

Language. 

Besides its value as Evidence (see p. 146), the Sources 
of its Vocabulary are to be noted, and the extent of its 
Dialects, and the general characteristics (merits and 
faults) of the Spoken and Literary Languages. 

Among other questions, one may ask — 

How far are foreign Languages known and spoken ? 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR PERIOD-HEADINGS 119 

How far does the Literary differ from the Spoken, 
and this from the ' Vulgar ' Dialect ? 

Literature. 

For a list of some of the departments of Poetical 
and Prose Writings see p. 131 ; and for Criticisms, see 
p. 132. Literature might include 

Philosophy, and, to some extent, 

the Sciences, which tend to become better known 
among the Common People. 

For the ' Arts', such as Music, Painting, Sculpture, 
and Architecture, see under the 'Occupations' (p. 120). 

Inventions are worth notice. The effects of the 
Steam -Engine, of Machinery (e.g. for Printing), of 
Electricity, of Photography, etc., are of course well 
worth a separate Essay. 

Social Life, and Home Life. 

Ancient Histories used to say little on this topic. 
Wars and Battles, Kings and Governments, Religion, 
etc., these were the main themes. 

Now, however, we tend more and more to look into 
the state of Social Life and Home Life. A book like 
Escott's " England " shows how important these topics 
are. 

Among the Headings might be : — 
Intercourse ; 
Amusements : — 

games, athletics, and ' sport ', 
exercise in general, 

entertainments (theatres, dinners, etc.), 
festivals and holidays ; 



120 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

temperance and moderation, or the reverse ; 
customs and habits ; 
daily life ; 

position of women, and of various classes (p. no), 
marriage, and divorce. 
Under Home Life, we might also note 

the relations of father, mother, children, 

servants, and relatives ; 
education of children, and of servants. 
Here also we might note 
the position of women: — e.g. 

their occupations indoors and out-of-doors ; 
their aims ; 
their education. 
Dress is a matter of no small importance, as we shall 
realise some day. Whether a certain fashion is natural 
and healthy, or unnatural and unhealthy, is a subject de- 
serving careful attention. 

Health. 
Here, as elsewhere, the average Health of the popu- 
lation is to be observed. We must not take a few 
athletes as typical of the whole Nation. 
Among the tests* will be : — 
the appearance ; 

the work done by the body and the intellect ; 
the standard of morality ; 

the flourishing (or the reverse) of doctors, drugs, 
stimulants, etc., and of diseases. 
Occupations. See also the Classes (p. 1 10). 
The place of the Occupation is worth observing, 
whether it be in town or country, on the sea-coast, or 
on river or at sea. 

* See "Muscle, Brain, and Diet" (published by Messrs, Sonnenschein). 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR PERIOD-HEADINGS 121 

The amount of idleness is also to be observed ; 
whether it be 'sheer' idleness, or be due to want of 
employment or to ill-health, etc. The ignorant would 
like to class here the professional athletes and many 
amateurs also. But the openminded and intelligent 
public will realise that games and exercises are one 
of the most important 'Occupations' of the British 
people : without them we should soon become ' a nation 
of shopkeepers', or, rather, something far worse. 

Among * Occupations ' may be mentioned these : — 
Country life ; 
Professions, etc. : — 

Politics and Government-work, 

Law, 

Religion, 

Education, 

Literature, 

Science, 

Arts, 

War, 

Army and Navy,. 

Health, 

Doctors and Inspectors, 

Engineering. 

Commerce, and Trades: — 
Financing — 

Banking, Money-lending, etc. 
Commercial life (of merchants) — 

Clerkships, etc. 
Shop-keeping (wholesale or retail), 
Agencies. 



122 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Industries : — 

agricultural and ' pastoral ', 
food, etc., 
building, etc., 
manufactories, 
dress, 

carrying and conveying. 
Servants, and Slaves. 
Wealth and Finance (cp. above). 
The Wealth of the State, 

of groups (e.g. Companies), 
of classes (e.g. the 'Aristocracy'), 
of individuals, 
may be noted. 

The Wealth of the State may be considered with 
reference to 

its sources (esp. Taxation), and amount ; 
the ways of collecting the Wealth ; 
the ways of spending it. 
The Wealth of individuals also has 
its sources and its character, 

e.g. land and its 'products' (p. 107), 
coinage, 
paper money, 
1 credit ', 
etc. ; 
the amount of it, and its distribution ; 
the ways in which it is spent. 
Under Finance we may call attention to 
charity ; 
banks ; 
the relation of work, payment, selling, and buying 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR PERIOD-HEADINGS 123 

Other Peoples, connected in some way. 

The actual Connexions may be very various, and 
often hard to define; e.g. see the Bonds of Union 
(p. 112). 

The list of these Other Peoples might include : — 

1. Subjects, who form the Empire proper: what is their 

relation to the home -country, and what is the 
nature of the rule? And see Headings on p. 83. 

2. Allies, for a time, or as members of a more or 

less permanent League, or as ( United States '. 
And see Headings on p. 83. 

3. Colonies. Here, also, what is the relation to the 

home-country? How far off are the Colonies? 
And see id. 

4. People connected by 

blood, 

marriage, 

intercourse and travel 

trade and commerce. Here the question of 

Protection will come in. 
See also Headings on p. 8^. 

5. Rulers. An Essay on India would have to in- 

clude an account of England, the ruler of India. 
And see id. 

6. Enemies. See below, and under ' War \ 

With all these Peoples, something might be said 
under many Headings, such as 
Geography, 

communication, 
all the classes, 
Government ; 
and see the Headings on p. 83. 



124 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC 

The effects of the home -people on the Other 

Peoples, and vice versa, must be estimated. 

War : see the General Headings on p. 92. 

In contrast to War, we have Peace, Arbitration, 

Compromise by fines etc. 

A few Headings (from p. 92) : — 

the causes and aims, and the side with which 

the greater part of the blame seems to lie ; 

the expenses of money, life, property, prestige, 

etc. ; 

the characteristics — e.g. 

ways of fighting, 

length of war. 

The Army. 

Many questions might be asked here : e.g. with 

reference to 

compulsory service, 

standing army, 

subdivision of work (specialisation). 

As to the Troops, from what classes are they chiefly 

drawn, 

citizens (include volunteers here) ; 

mercenaries ; 

allies ? 

The proportions should be given. 

The divisions, large and small, e.g. 

heavy-armed) . r , , . 

.. , , knfantry and cavalry, 

light-armed J 

artillery and siege-train, 

commissariat, 

transport-service, 

garrison-duty, 

etc. 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR PERIOD-HEADINGS 125 

The tactics. 

The arms, etc. 

The privileges of troops and officers, 
their position, 
rewards. 

For the General, see p. 105. 

The Navy might have somewhat similar Headings. 

The relative size and importance of Army and Navy 
should be considered. 

Of course both War, and the Army and the Navy, 
cannot be considered apart from the Geography of the 
Country (p. 107). 

The Subsequent Period should have Headings like 
those of the Period itself (p. 92). 

This Period is important because it gives many 
results of the Period itself: in the earlier Period were 
the germs or eggs which were only developed or 
hatched later on. See 'Fallacies' (p. 150). 

We are wont to judge the policy of a Politician or 
a Party by its immediate effects. This may be quite 
unfair. It is possible that the real and vital effects 
will not come into being till 20 or 50 or even 100 years 
later. Thus Pericles' policy must not be judged by his own 
Period alone: we must look beyond: when we do, we may 
consider it bad. ' By their fruits ye shall know them.' 

An Individual also must be judged not only by what 
he is, but b)' what he is becoming (his tendency), and 
also, to some extent, by what his children are : see p. 100. 

It is this principle (of taking into account the follow- 
ing period) that gives Ancient History its unique value. 
We are not yet in a position to teach the History of 
to-day. We shall not be, for at least another fifty years. 



126 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC 

The Previous Period is no less valuable. It should 
also have much the Same Headings as on p. 83. 

While the Subsequent Period gives some of the 
results (of course it does not consist entirely of 
results), the Previous Period gives some of the causes 
and helps, and — a vital consideration — some of the 
hindrances as well. 

In other words, the Period itself did not suddenly 
start into being, self-made, as it were : it was what it 
was, to a great extent because of, or in spite of, the 
Previous Period. There lay the germs which developed 
within the Period itself. 

Thus each Period is not simply a unit, but is also 
a link — the link between the Previous Period and the 
Subsequent Period, and to some extent the result of the 
former and the cause of the latter. 

And yet each Period is a unit too. The people do 
inherit a certain state and certain conditions : but it 
rests with these people to make or to mar. Only let 
us remember that the Previous Period does impose 
certain limitations, and the Subsequent Period does give 
us evidence as well. 

We saw that the Individual also is what he is partly 
because of his heredity, i.e. the ' Previous Period ', so 
to speak. We saw that his effects might continue after 
his death, or indeed might not appear or flourish at all 
till after his death, in the ' Subsequent Period '. Never- 
theless, he is a unit, an Individual. His heredity and 
his conditions or environment give him his stock-in- 
trade and his sphere of action. It rests with him to 
make or to mar : and the real and full result of his 
life may not come till a decade or a whole century shall 
have passed. 



SUB-HEADINGS FOR PERIOD-HEADINGS 127 

Changes within the Period itself. 

As with the Individual, so with the Period, it is 
necessary to discover the Changes and tendencies in 
any direction, e.g. Changes of population (immigration 
and emigration, growth of the town -population, etc.). 
Many of the above Headings should be taken. The 
Previous Period and the Subsequent Period will perhaps 
be the best guide as to the tendency, even if these 
exaggerate it. 

The Stage of Progress. 

As we must not judge a man apart from the Period 
in which he lived (his environment), so we must not 
judge a People apart from its environment. We must 
not expect in an Ancient Nation the standard of virtue 
which we may demand to-day. 

For different signs of Progress, see p. 135 foil. Here 
just a few features of modern times may be mentioned. 

1. Geography (see p. 107) is better known and better 
used. 

2. States are larger. 

3. More classes are included or considered, esp. 
women, children, and foreigners. 

4. The individual (p. in) is also recognised as a 
unit, not merely as a part of the machinery of the 
family or City- State, etc. He gets more share in 
Government, justice, comfort, education, and so on 

( P . u6). 

5. Specialisation is more and more marked. In 
Government, for instance, instead of a single person 
or set of persons managing War, Justice, Religion, 
Finance, etc., we have sets of persons who take up 



128 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

one of these things as a speciality, and, later on, only 
a part (perhaps only a tiny part) of one of them, 
e.g. one department of Criminal Law. And so it is 
with Commerce, Industries, Education, etc. 

6. Fresh Inventions are constantly made, and also 
made known to the public. Knowledge generally be- 
comes more accurate and more widely diffused. 

Many other features should be considered. But here 
it is enough to say that, when we judge a People, we 
must take into account not only the Geography of the 
People, and other advantages and disadvantages, but 
also the general state of civilisation at the time. 

It is this that makes the Athenians so wonderful. 

Leading Men and Women may be 
a. typical of the People, in most respects ; or 
/3. an exaggeration of some of their features, perhaps 
also anticipating some of the features of a later Period ; 
y. contrasts to the People, in most respects, or ' pro- 
tests ' against them, as Socrates was, and as Jesus was. 

For Quotations, see p. 163. 

For Contrasts, see p. 291. 

For Parallels and Comparisons, pp. 279, 281. 



CHAPTER XXIII. HEADINGS FOR AN ESSAY, 
ETC., ON AN AUTHOR, AND 
FOR LITERARY CRITICISM. 



At first the Author should be treated (briefly) as a 
Person : see p. 93. We should consider the evidences, 
the events of his life, the helps and causes and 
hindrances (heredity and environment), the description, 
including changes, the aims, the effects, etc. 

Then we should consider him as an Author, and 
here the Headings will be somewhat similar (see p. 92). 

We shall have (e.g. in the case of Vergil or Livy) : — 

Evidences, etc. 

Instances, viz. his works, which can be classified in 
various ways, e.g. by their subjects. 

Helps and Causes, and 

Hindrances. 

Here we should have not only the heredity, and the 
Period, the groups of family, friends, etc. (p. 112). and 
the training, but also 

(a) previous Literature, 

(b) Literature of the Period itself. 

Description and Individuality of the Work. 
In estimating the work, we must remember to 
separate [see p. 213 foil] 

I. the Ideas, from 

II. the Expression of the Ideas, and the Style. 

For the Ideas may be disgustingly unhealthy 

even though the Style be most exquisite. 

Under I., the Ideas, will come the Ideas themselves, 

which should be interesting, show knowledge of the 

subject, of human nature, etc., be fair and true (e.g. 

k • 129 



i 3 o IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

showing sympathy with those who hold opposite views), 
healthy, well-selected, well-proportioned, well-arranged, 
etc. See p. 60 foil. 

Under II., the Expression of Ideas, will come such 
Headings as 

Clearness, 

Brevity, 

Variety, 

Rhythm, 

etc. See p. 202 foil. 

III. It must be remembered that the different parts 
of an Author's work must often be judged quite 
separately; e.g. Cicero's Letters, his Public Speeches, 
his Philosophical Writings, and his Poetry. 

IV. The Aims and objects of the Author are of 
importance : we have to consider not only 

(i) what his Aims were, and how good or bad they 
were, but also 

(ii) how far he succeeded, according to these Aims. 

Critics often forget that an Author may succeed in 
what he aims at doing, even though he may be aiming 
very low. 

V. Changes are common. An Author's early writings 
may be better than his later writings, or vice versa. 

The Effects (good or bad) may be traced 
(i) upon people, and their lives, 
(ii) upon Literature ; and these Effects may appear 
(iii) immediately, or 
(iv) not till after a long interval. 

Here, as everywhere, the most important points must 
be made clear and emphasised by 
Comparisons, and 
Contrasts. 



FOR AN ESSAY ON AN AUTHOR 131 

If we compare and contrast Burke with Demosthenes, 
or vice versa, we shall throw light on, and emphasise, 
every point in which they agree and every point in 
which they differ. 

Quotations may be used (see p. 163). 

A few Classes of Writings may be noticed : — 

A. Poetry. 

Heroic or Epic Poems. 

Hymns, and Sacred Poetry. 

Songs, and Personal Poetry. 

Dramatic. 

Comic. 

Epigrammatic. 

B. Prose. 

History and Narrative. 

Biography. 

Special Periods. 
Geography, 
Essays and Articles. 
Oratory. 

Philosophy, and Religion. 
Learned Work. 

Sciences. 
'Art' and Illustration. 
Education, and Training. 
Translation. 
Humour. 

Drama (Tragedy and Comedy). 
Fiction. 
1 Journalism'. 
Criticism, 
etc., etc. 
Both lists might easily be extended. 



132 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Note. 

In Literary Criticism it is absolutely vital to separate 
the estimate of the Ideas from the estimate of the 
Expression or Style ; and not only this, but also to 
separate the different ways of regarding the Ideas 
and the Style. 

For instance, an Author may have very unwholesome 
Ideas, but the Ideas may yet be true to nature, and 
may be ' well-proportioned ' (p. 268), and well-arranged. 
Or, again, his Ideas may be wholesome, but untrue. 
Or they may be wholesome and true, but ill-adapted 
to the 'audience'. 

It is our part to consider which merits and which 
faults the Author combines. The number of ' com- 
binations ' is enormous. 

And so with the Expression. It may be clear, 
forcible, rhythmical, etc., without the Ideas being at 
all worthy of praise either for their healthiness, or 
for their truth, or for their fitness for the Author's 
purpose. Again, the Expression may be quite clear, 
but wanting in brevity, and in Rhythm. 

Here, again, we shall have to consider which merits 
and which faults the Author combines. 

As to Expression, the passage from the New Testa- 
ment (p. 211) should always be borne in mind. It will 
recall most of the merits of Style. 

It must be repeated that the Author's advantages 
and disadvantages, his aims, and his ' changes ' (p. 100), 
must always be kept in view. 



CHAPTER XXIV. TOPXGS FOR COMPOSITION, 
WITH HEADINGS FOR AN 
ESSAY ON PROGRESS. 



Some Types of Subjects (cp. p. 9). 

I. For the ' Period '-Headings {see p. 83). 

(a) The Elizabethan Age. 

(J?) The Results of English Conquests. 

(V) The Causes of England's Success. 

(d) The Bonds of Union between England and 

her Colonies. 

(e) The Proper Sphere of Government Control. 
(/) Progress (see p. 135). 

(g) ' Failure is the only sure Foundation of 
Success '. 

II. For the ' General Essay' -Headings {p. 92). Many 
of these involve the Period- Headings also. 

(a) Absolute Monarchy [or, Aristocracy, or, 

Democracy]. 
(J?) Slavery [or, Liberty]. 

(c) War. 

(d) Naval Power. 

(e) Colonisation. 

{/) Games and Athletics. 
(g) English Public Schools. 
(h) Printing. 
(Y) Decision. 
(J) Education. 

133 



134 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

(k) Amusements. 
(/) Travelling. 
(;//) Books and Reading. 
(n) Newspapers. 
(o) Music. 
(J>) Poverty. « 
(g) Fire. 
Hundreds might be added. See i Pros and Cons ' 
(Sonnenschein and Co.). 

III. For the Headings for a Person (p. 93). 

(a) Philip of Macedon [or Caesar, or Napoleon]. 

(b) Cicero [or Gladstone]. 

(c) Watt [or Stephenson]. 
id) Lord Shaftesbury. 

IV. For the Headings for an Author {p. 129 foil). 
{a) Thucydides [or, Carlyle]. 

(b) Livy [or, Macaulay]. 
\c) Vergil [or, Milton]. 
{d) Browning. 
(e) Matthew Arnold. 



HEADINGS FOR ESS A Y ON PROGRESS 



Progress. 

To illustrate the use of the ' Period '-Headings (see 
p. 83), an Essay on ' Progress ' (or ' Evolution ') might 
be sketched. The Ideas here are not yet complete, nor 
are they yet ' Selected ', Underlined, or Arranged. 

Evidences (esp. instances and examples) 
Authorities 
points of view 
Fallacies, e.g. 

judging by upper classes only 
by comfort only 
by Churches only 
by ' Freedom ' only 

Geography and Geology 

more understood and used 

e.g. wood, water, metals, coal 
Public Works 

e.g. walls, drainage 

Population — every Class- 
increasing 

more Classes included (p. no) 
esp. women and slaves 

Communication 

increasing (steamers and railways, postage 
and telegraphs) 

opening of minds to new ideas 
Unions 

larger, but 

more care for Individual (p. 116) 



136 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

State-Government 

less control over individual 

sphere changed 

local freedom 

division of labour and specialisation 

Justice, and Rights 

Justice separated from Government 

more Rights for individual 
Virtues 

higher (Ideal) standard (p. 99), for 
a. individuals 

/3. States, and other unions or group* 
Religion 

tolerance 

philosophy 

Aims and Thoughts 

originality allowed and encouraged 
Capacities 

specialised (p. 127) 
Education 

much of it useless 

extended to more classes (e.g. women) 

cheaper 

Language 

expresses more things in more ways 
a few Languages are widely spread 

Philosophy, Sciences, and Arts 

more numerous Sciences 

each subdivided (specialisation) 

used for man's benefit 

more accurate methods of research 
Inventions 



HEADINGS FOR ESSAY ON PROGRESS 137 

Social Life, and Home-life 

birth less important, wealth often more so 

father's power less supreme 

individual freer 
Health 

bodily perhaps worse 

professed care 

unnatural conditions (city-life, etc.) 
Occupations 

more numerous 

specialisation and co-operation 

town-life and industries 
Commerce 

Free Trade 
Professions 

more (e.g. teaching) recognised as re- 
spectable 
Wealth 

money and paper-money 

investments 

huge fortunes (uneven distribution) 

credit 
Finance 

taxation fairer 

Political Econo'my studied 

Other Peoples connected 
Subjects 

huge Empires 

more consideration for subjects—- 
less oppressed 
Colonies 

more independent 
further afield 



133 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Allies 



Visitors 



balance of power 

more numerous 

better treated 

they are educated by the visits, and them- 
selves serve as educators 
Traders 

international rights 

Free Trade 
Enemies and War 

more arbitration, but 

huge Armies, of soldier-specialists, 
Navies 

expense 

deadly weapons, etc. 
Leading Men and Women 
Changes and tendencies 

towards a huge World-State 

gradual 

To illustrate the use of the l General Essay '-Headings 
(see p. 92), we might notice, e.g. 
Causes and Helps 

God's guiding hand 
man's work 
Hindrances 
do. 
backward movements 

Progress not a straight upward line, 
but a series of curves 
Objections 

some say there is no 'Progress' and improve- 
ment, but only change, or Evolution. 



CHAPTER XXV. AUTHORITIES, AND THEIR 
FAULTS AND FAILINGS: 
WITH A RHYME. 



With regard to the quoting of Authorities, see p. 163 , 
and for the right way of reading Books and listening 
to Lectures, see pp. 352, 358. It is pointed out there 
how the information must not only be absorbed but 
must also be thoroughly understood, digested, and 
thought over, and also (if possible) applied. 

Here I shall speak of Authorities only in so far as 
they are Authorities for the Ideas in the Essay. Every 
Essay should mention the Authorities on which its 
statements are based, that is to say, if there are any 
such Authorities ; there is too great a tendency to trust 
implicitly to the statements made by well-known people, 
and it is important that every statement should be 
given only for what it is worth. There should be a 

distinction between ' This is so,' and ' Sir says that 

this is so '. 

It is necessary for every Writer and Speaker to know 
exactly where his Authorities are deficient and to state 
these deficiencies clearly. It is especially necessary 
when the subject is about former times, or when it 
includes former times, as in a Historical Sketch, or in 
parallels from Ancient History. 



139 



140 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 



Faults and Failings of Authorities. 

Supposing we had to do an Essay on ' Rome in the 
time of the Early Republic,' oar Authority would in 
the main be Livy, just as for English ~ History our 
Authorities might be Ivlacaulay, etc. : we should have 
to consider how far such Authorities were adequate or 
inadequate. 

1. On p. 150 we shall see how many errors are due 
to the omission of something, and, with regard to our 
Authorities, we notice that many of them are lost 
either wholly or in part. The Historians from whom 
Livy drew his narrative are mostly lost, and a great 
deal of Livy himself is lost also. 

2. And this is not all : for the writers omit a great 
number of important topics. We know how, till quite 
recently, English Histories were full of Wars and 
battles, lists of Kings, and Court-intrigues, changes in 
Government, and so on. They omitted things which 
now we consider scarcely if at all less important than 
these, and which, as the years go on, may gradually 
come to be considered as even more important, for 
instance, health, the state of the poorer classes, the 
daily life of average people, the Colonies, and so on. 
Hence the Authorities are as a rule singularly in- 
adequate when we come to deal with any of the large 
problems of Ancient Times or even of what may be 
called the earlier Modern Times. 

3. Once again, the Authorities are apt to fall into 
terrible Fallacies (see p. 150), e.g. fixing their attention 



AUTHORITIES AND THEIR FAULTS 141 

on a part, and excluding the other parts which may- 
be equally important, and drawing their conclusions 
from the one part only, as (see p, 151) Max O'Rell is 
wont to do. 

4. Nearly all writers are Massed in favour of their 
own times and their own country, and against other 
times and other countries ; few writers have erred 
more in this respect than English Historians. The 
writing of History in an impartial spirit has scarcely 
begun in our country. Writers are also biassed and 
prejudiced in favour of their own party or group, for 
instance, their political party, their friends, and their 
family : which means that they are biassed against the 
opposing political party, against their personal enemies, 
and so on. 

5. The Method .of many Authorities, too, is very 
unsatisfactory. 

The Summary of Events in " Whitaker's Almanack : ' 
gives the events of the year according to the days 
of the year : we pass on from the name of the Lord 
Mayor to a war in the East, from the death of a 
member of the Royal Family, and the birthday of 
another member, to the opening of some charitable 
institution ; then there may come another allusion to 
the War, and so on. The whole account would be 
described in technical language as wanting in con- 
tinuity and connexion, as wanting in proportion and 
perspective, and as wanting in unity. 

6. This want of proportion is noticeable. While the 
writer who lives long after the events must err because 
his evidence is meagre or unfair, the writer who lives 
at the time of, or soon after, the events, is almost bound 



142 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

to err because he cannot yet see things in their real 
bearing : for the results (see p. 125) are not yet visible. 

7. The Aim and object of Authorities often makes 
them quite unfitted for use as Evidences. Many of 
them wish to gain something by their writings, to 
please people, to instruct them, or to blame or to 
justify. With these aims in view, they do not mind 
omitting, adding, or altering. 

8. Nor must we lose sight of their forgetfulness, their 
laziness in not examining Evidences, and also 

9. the faults and omissions of the Authorities and 
Evidences which they have to use; and we shall see that 
thousands and thousands of the statements, which are 
made and repeated with absolute confidence in Books 
and Essays and Speeches, are insufferably unreliable. 

10. Only then is the writer wont to feel any doubt, 
when the Authorities for a given point are found to 
disagree ; when there is only one Authority, then the 
writer accepts that Authority ; he assumes that, because 
it is not contradicted, therefore it must be right. But, ; 
when we come to think over the matter, the statements 
made by only a single Authority are apt to be quite 
unreliable, as we can tell by the mere fact that, when 
several Authorities are found side by side, they nearly 
always differ; this should lead us to suppose that, 
where we only have one Authority giving one account 
of the matter, if we had other Authorities surviving 
as well we should probably have other accounts of the 
matter. But this vital principle is little known to the 
public. It is frequently ignored even by the most 
critical Historians and Essayists and Speakers, with 
the curious result that, where the Evidences are most 



AUTHORITIES AND THEIR FAULTS 143 

meagre, the statements are made with the most absolute 
confidence, and, where the Evidences are most complete, 
scarcely any certain statements can be made at all. 

As a matter of fact, the strongest Evidence for truth 
is not that which one Authority says but that about 
which many Authorities agree, though they may differ 
on other matters. 

These are only a few words out of many which the 
subject of Authorities demand, but it is enough to 
show that an Essay or Speech must not merely repeat 
statements as absolutely certain, but must give the 
Authorities for them and examine how far these 
Authorities are reliable or the reverse. 

We shall now show that the same will apply with 
regard to the Evidences for any statement, apart from 
the written Authorities. 

Even what we discard may have its value : we may 
not only (see p. 149) draw inferences from what is 
omitted by the writer, but we may also draw inferences 
from what we ourselves decide to discard. We may 
say that so-and-so is a mere exaggeration, a piece of 
colouring, a myth : but the mere fact that it was 
accepted by so many people, and accepted perhaps 
without any suspicion, may give us valuable informa- 
tion as to the minds of these people, their characters 
and habits of thought. 

But even where we may seem to have abundance of 
Authority, and abundance of Evidence, it may often 
be best to be both candid and cautious, and to say, 
1 This we should almost certai7ily reject (or accept) ; this 
very probably ; that probably ; that possibly ; and that, 
again, probably not \ Accuracy often says ' Be content . 
with various degrees of probability \ 



H4 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC, 

As an Exercise in finding out the chief faults of 
Authorities, it might be as well to make a list of, and 
classify, and find the causes of, the faults of the follow- 
ing : — Fairy Stories, Legends and Myths, accounts by 
common people or children, the writers in the time 
of Louis XIV., 'How Bill Adams won the Battle of 
Waterloo '. There are plenty of other fields for practice 
e.g. in' everyday conversation. 

A Rhyme, giving some Failings of the Authorities. 

Authorities are often lost, they sometimes 

add, or change, 
exaggerate, accumulate, omit, or rearrange, 
from interest, or desire to please, teach, 

blame, or justify, 
or from forgetfulness or sloth, or from 

some Fallacy. 
They often lack proportion, continuity, 

broad grasp, 
and show us such a Bias as should make 

the critic gasp. 



CHAPTER XXVI. OTHER EVIDENCES. 



BY Evidences I here mean something besides the actual 
Authorities for any given statement, for which see 
p. 139 foil. 

Supposing that all English History Books, up to to-day, 
had been burnt, how could we restore English History ? 

Putting aside the Inscriptions and Documents and 
Letters and other Literary sources, what would there be 
to tell us about the past? In coaching at Cambridge 
I have often been surprised at the ignorance of pupils 
as to what Evidences there are for any given statement 
apart from the actual written Authorities themselves. 

I. First of all comes Geography, which may be made 
to include Geology. A great deal of our past History 
can be learnt from a map of our country. When we 
see the coal-fields and the mines in the North and 
West, when we see the network of rivers and canals, 
the neighbourhood of France and of the North- Western 
coast-line of Europe, when we see how easy it is to 
get from England all over the world by various routes, 
when we see how England, though far Northwards, 
still has the Gulf Stream to keep it warm, we cannot 
fail to be able to restore a good deal of our past. 

But, if we wanted to look for remains and traces of 
the past, whether these remains be changed or whether 
they be, as it were, fossilised, where shall we be inclined 
to look ? 

l 145 



146 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

2. Religio7i will be one of the best places. Just 
as one looks for fossils in a cliff, so one looks for 
old-fashioned things in Religion. Where else do we 
find the language of 1611 in daily use, and a great 
deal as well that belongs to periods far earlier than 
that ? 

3. Law, again, preserves (to the woe of the poor) 
many traces of old things, such as customs which have 
disappeared elsewhere. 

4. Buildings also carry us back a long way — some of 
them, like Stonehenge, to the very early times of our 
country. 

5. Language and Philology are most valuable as 
Evidences. Our English names of towns in -don, -ham, 
-Chester, -caster, etc., tell us a little history all by them- 
selves. They tell us that we are a mixed people, or 
rather that we owe our civilisation to many peoples. 
Our very Language itself points in the same direction. 
See "How to Learn Philology" (Sonnenschein and Co.). 

6. And if we were to make Inferences from these and 
many other Evidences, as to what our past History had 
been, I think that all its most important features could 
easily be reconstructed. We might not recover many 
names and dates and details, and the inferences would 
have to be corrected, but anyhow the exercise of 
making them would be admirable for the mind. 

7. In one respect, indeed, Evidences apart from 
written Histories would correct almost every written 
History that we have. If we carefully examined the 
shape of the skulls of English people to-day, we should 
be able, in fact we should be bound, to correct the 
statement so common in History books, that we belong 
almost entirely to the Teutonic stock. Language of 



OTHER EVIDENCES 147 

course is no safe guide here. The skulls show us 
to be not only Teutonic, but also to a large extent 
Celtic. 

The great advantage of studying Evidences, besides 
the exercise it gives for the mental faculties, especially 
that of drawing inferences, is that it compels us to 
examine customs, and the sayings of high authorities, 
both of which are apt to be false and far from good 
and true. We are apt to be fettered by custom and by 
what well-known people are pleased to tell us. We are 
apt to take for granted that this must be best, without 
examining the question for ourselves. For us, as 
reasoning beings, it is a serious duty to examine the 
Evidences for any given statement ; without such an 
examination we are incurring a heavy responsibility. 
Some day everybody will be required to justify him- 
self for whatever he has done, and, if he does not get 
into the habit of examining Evidences, he will be 
forced to fall back upon that very silly reason ' I did 
it because a great number of other people were doing 
it as well '. 

Take, for instance, the doctor. Why does he recom- 
mend such-and-such a drug? Because some high 
Authority recommends it, and because it is usual to 
recommend it. What are the Evidences for its value? 
Surely that is a far more important question. 

There is an extra advantage besides, and that is that 
the Evidences often form an interesting Beginning for 
an Essay, or for a Book, or for a Speech. They are 
seldom given in such Compositions : in fact, of the 
Essays which I have examined, scarcely one out of 
a hundred gives its Evidences. And yet these are 
undoubtedly of very great interest and importance. 



148 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Besides the above branches of Evidences there are 
many others. 

8. On pages 279, 281, 291, we shall see that Parallels 
and Comparisons and Contrasts are a kind of Evidence. 
At any rate they suggest things which might be true, 
and occasionally they go a great deal further than that. 
If we find that similarity of appearance is a bond which 
holds a family together, we may conclude that simi- 
larity of appearance is a bond which may hold a Nation 
together to some extent, and even two Nations, e.g. 
ourselves and the Americans or Australians. 

9. The branches of Evidence most commonly omitted 
are the Previous Conditions and the Subsequent Conditions. 
Nothing can be fairly judged without a consideration 
of these two points. There never was a truer saying 
than l By their fruits ye shall know them*. And yet 
people will not judge things by their results. They 
will take the opinion of others for granted and repeat 
it like parrots and not like rational and civilised 
animals. Before we dare to criticise another person, 
for instance, we should always carefully examine what 
may be called his Previous Conditions and, as far as 
we can, his Subsequent Conditions. The Previous 
Conditions will include his heredity (his parents and 
ancestors), and his environment, that is to say, the 
circumstances and conditions under which he has lived : 
without these, we cannot form a true estimate of the 
person himself. Nor can we really see in what direction 
lie is tending (which is vitally important), unless we 
see the results. This it is that makes a judgment on 
something which is going on in our own times almost 
impossible. For we cannot know it by its fruits : its 
fruits may not appear for twenty years or more. In 



OTHER EVIDENCES 149 

an estimate of past heroes or 'villains', the previous 
conditions and their effects upon the person must always 
be taken into account as Evidences. 

The subject of Evidences would form a good subject 
for a long book or series of books, and it is impossible 
to treat of it adequately in a single Chapter. Here I 
have only suggested one or two thoughts out of some 
hundreds. The reader would do well to work it out 
as a special Essay-subject all by itself. But just two 
more points must be noted. 

10. Extreme cases and simple cases are of the very 
highest value. Buckle, when he wished to find the 
influences of Geography on man and on History, 
started with such countries as Egypt : here he had an 
extreme case and a simple case. It was an exaggera- 
tion of certain principles, but it showed these principles 
clearly and simply. This was far better than starting 
on a ' complicated ' country like France. 

11. Omissions are not without their value. ' If this 
had been so, the writer would certainly have men- 
tioned it' may often be a sound line of argument. 
This is especially the case, e.g., where a writer omits 
to blame someone whom he elsewhere loses no oppor- 
tunity of blaming. But, like so many other branches 
of Evidence, this is valuable rather as suggesting or 
confirming some point, than as actually proving it. 



CHAPTER XXVII. FALLACIES : WITH A RHYME. 



The reader will naturally ask why I devote a special 
Chapter to Fallacies. There are several reasons. 

1. Fallacies are to be carefully avoided everywhere, 
and they cannot properly be avoided unless their nature 
and their causes are first seen. One must learn to 
detect Fallacies in others as well as in oneself. 

2. The detection of Fallacies and the study of Falla- 
cies is very good exercise, not only for the reasoning 
faculty, but also for what we may call honesty and 
open-mindedness, and even for Progress itself. The 
opposite of a Fallacy may often be considered as Bias," 
and Bias is very frequently in favour of custom. It 
assumes that what is customary is best, and it opposes 
any and every change. 

3. For Literary purposes there is no better Beginning 
to an Essay than the exposing of a Fallacy. The 
instance from the New Testament (p. 211) shows this, 
and Guizot in his " History of Civilization " shows it also. 
That book has a model Beginning. 

One of the reasons for this is that everybody likes 
to hear others criticised or to criticise others for himself. 
It interests the reader to expose a Fallacy, and it pre- 
pares the ground very well for what you consider to be 
the true view of the subject Before you say what a 
thing iSy you often make your task and your reader's 
task easier if you say what it is not. In fact very often 
one can go little further in a subject than to expose the 
Fallacies. One may not like to venture on many positive 
opinions. 

150 



FALLACIES 151 

I have collected here one or two Fallacies from a 
book which had a large sale at one time, namely " John 
Bull and his Island", by Max O'Rell. The reader 
should take the words and find out where the Fallacies 
lie, and should then classify the Fallacies for himself. 
He might compare his results with mine and accept 
whichever he thinks the more reasonable. 

The references are to the pages of the reply by " John Bull to 
Max O'Rell " (Wyman and Sons). 

1. "John Bull has muscular arms, long, broad, flat, and very 
heavy feet, and an iron jaw that holds fast whatever it seizes 
upon." (17) 

2. "A head-master knows personally every pupil." (78) 

3. "In England an intelligent boy costs his parents nothing to 
educate." (78) 

4. " Football is a wild game, fit for savages." (78) 

5. " Summer and winter, the Englishwoman takes a cold bath 
every morning." (22) 

6. " The aristocracy, the upper and middle lower classes all go 
to church or chapel ; the lower classes go to the tavern and get 
drunk." (39) 

7. "The French workman is an artist in his way; the work 
of the English artisan is purely manual, and he only turns out 
substantial things." (93) 

1, 2, 3, and 4 are Fallacies because they seize on one part or 
set of instances, and ignore or omit other parts. They generalise 
without consulting the Law of Averages (p. 157). 4 especially is 
a Fallacy due to judging by appearances (p. 155). It obviously 
is not by a man who has played the game hundreds of times with 
gentlemen. 

5 (like some of the above) seems to be due chiefly to bad 
Evidence : though it is like 1, 2, 3, and 4 also. The part here 
is a very exceptional part. 

6. Here also a very exceptional part is chosen, and the Evidence 
(esp. as to the Public Houses) is partly to blame. 

7. Shows National Bias, though it contains a germ of truth. It 
also generalises by one part, and ignores and omits the other 
parts. 



152 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

For the purpose of criticism, he need not here trouble 
as to whether the Fallacies were intentional or un- 
intentional. He may even assume that they were 
unintentional and due to ignorance or carelessness : that 
is the more charitable view. It does not matter much, 
for our present purpose, whether the writer was himself 
deceived or whether he intended to deceive others. 

Putting aside actual mistakes, we may mention a few 
Fallacies which are exceptionally common, leaving the 
reader for the most part to think of his own instances. 

He will find that most Fallacies are Fallacies of 
Omission. The mistake is generally that something 
of importance is omitted. 

Let us take, to start with, a Proverb, " Take care 
of the pence and the pounds will take care of them- 
selves." Everyone knows that there are hundreds of 
cases where this does not apply at all, where the person 
takes care of the pence and the pounds do not take 
care of themselves (except in the sense of keeping clear 
of the ' economiser '). The Fallacy here is that some- 
thing is omitted ; and the omission would be — ' Take 
care of the pence, if it is economy to do so '. In the 
same way, it is not always really true that 'A penny 
saved is a penny gained '. Something may be omitted. 
I have known cases where a penny saved has been five 
shillings lost. The omission may be similar to the 
above : some other point of view has been unknown 
or else ignored. 

Supposing, now, we take that very common Fallacy, 
the Fallacy of trusting to Aiitliority, perhaps to a very 
high Authority : why should it be wrong to assume 
that 'a thing must really be so, because A has said 
that it is so.' Well, here one omits the fact that the 



FALLACIES 153 

Authority may have made a mistake and that other 
Authorities who are equally reliable may hold different 
opinions, and that anyhow everybody has a right to his 
own opinion and is not forced to admit the thing merely 
because A says that it is the case. 

Let us take the most terrible Fallacy of all the 
Fallacies, that what is customary is therefore best. 
How often we hear people say " It is wrong to do that", 
or " It is right to do that ", and then give as their only 
reason, for its being wrong, that most people don't do 
it, and, for its being right, that most people do do it. The 
fact is that something is omitted* here, and the chief 
Omission is the future. The person who says that 
what is customary is best omits to consider that the 
future, say in another thousand years, may be an 
improvement. Custom may alter. Now if the custom 
in a thousand years' time will be better than the custom 
now, as we hope it will be, then the custom now may 
not be best : it may be even execrable. It also omits 
the consideration of the past. People have always said 
that custom is the best, and yet in the past we have 
seen many changes. Each state of things was considered 
best until something new had been tried. This was 
nearly always at first considered as bad, yet it made its 
way and is now received into the sanctuary of custom. 

Very like this is the Fallacy due to Bias. A person 
will not look at a thing from any point of view but one. 
Read many English Histories and see how the English 
are always in the right, however wrong they may be. 
Then read a French History and see how the French 
are always in the right ! What has been omitted here ? 
Surely the point of view of the other side. The truth 
undoubtedly lies as a rule somewhere between the two 



154 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

extremes. Bias to a certain extent is inevitable, but it is 
a great thing to get into the habit of detecting it and of 
seeing that other people regard things from quite different 
points of view. Read the speech of Demosthenes and 
the speech of Aeschines on the Crown : each seems to 
be speaking the truth, and yet the orators are per- 
petually contradicting one another. Perhaps a third 
orator might have described the same incidents from a 
third point of view. All three would have been liable 
to fall into Fallacies. 

The Fallacy of fixing the attention on one part, and 
of ignoring the other parts, is one of the commonest that 
we have to be on our guard against. We shall see 
below that, when writers tell us that the Athenians were 
highly civilised, they omit a great deal — they omit, in 
fact, two parts of the State which were not prominent, 
but extraordinarily large, so much so that they were far 
larger than the mass of Athenian citizens themselves. 
The reader will guess that these two parts of the State, 
which frequently were scarcely at all educated, were the 
women and the slaves. To fix the attention on one 
part and to ignore the parts which are less prominent 
is one of the grossest Fallacies of all. It might surprise 
the reader if one called into question the statement that 
England is a prosperous country: he would immediately 
say ' Look at the amount of money that Englishmen 
possess, look at her position, and her merchants, and 
look at her possessions abroad ! ' These however are 
only parts. I have a perfect right to call attention to 
other parts. In fact I insist on doing so, and I might 
just as well judge her by the wretched millions in the 
cities. After all, they form a very great part of England. 
So, before we decide, we must consider not one part only, 
but every part. 



FALLACIES 155 

One part on which the attention is very commonly 
fixed and concentrated is the appearance. It is a great 
Fallacy to judge that a man is strong and healthy 
because he looks strong and healthy. For instance, a 
man may have a big chest and may appear, for this 
reason, to be very powerful. But when one finds that 
this chest is in a bad state, and cannot contract or 
expand much, one sees that the appearance was in this 
case deceptive. 

Fallacies about causes are also common. To fix the 
attention on one cause and to ignore the others is again 
a Fallacy of Omission. We read in Histories how one 
great event was due to a glass of water, another to a 
petty quarrel about a woman, and so on. Now all 
these were causes, it is true, but they were not the full 
causes, they were only a part of them. It is especially 
common to give the immediate cause. For instance, 
how often one hears that " The open window gave me a 
chill " — it may have been an open window that was the 
immediate cause, but it does not in the least follow that 
it was the full cause. There may have been many 
factors without which the open window would have 
produced no such result. 

And similarly with regard to motives. Now little 
account is taken of the number of motives which may 
induce a person to do a thing, and the changes which 
may take place in these motives as the person is in the 
course of doing the thing (see p. 108). The writer is 
generally content to fix on one motive and to give it as 
practically the only one. 

And, as people make mistakes about causes, so they 
make almost equally serious mistakes about hindrances: 
they even omit them altogether. They condemn a man, 



156 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC 

for instance, because he is a drunkard ; they omit the 
fact that his temperance was terribly hindered and 
handicapped by heredity, and by unwholesome surround- 
ings and temptations. If they did not omit this, they 
would scarcely condemn as unsparingly as they do. 

Once again, with regard to results : a man, let us 
say, is guilty of excesses in eating and in drinking, and 
he keeps this up for five years. He says, ' They are not 
affecting my health '. The Fallacy here is that he omits 
the future. Look at him in another twenty years' 
time, and then you may see where the Fallacy lies. He 
has been fixing his attention on only a part of the time 
during which the result would appear. Here again people 
are apt to judge too much by the immediate results. 

Another Fallacy would be where people make a 
wrong inference. I once read that " Reasoning cannot 
be taught ". The reader might do well to see where the 
Fallacy lies here, and he will do so best, I think, if he 
turns this into the personal form (see p. 233), asking 
himself "Who does what?" At first the answer is 
not obvious, but after a time it appears to be as 
follows. The person who made the above statement, 
that "Reasoning cannot be taught", should have said 
" I myself and others have not been able to teach 
reasoning ; therefore we conclude that reasoning 
cannot be taught at all ". The Fallacy was that this 
person omitted the possibility that someone in the future, 
someone who should be even wiser than himself, would 
have the power of teaching reasoning. Because he 
and others had failed, it did not follow that everyone 
else in the whole future would be certain to fail also. 

When once we come to details, Fallacies are legion. 
The Fallacy, for instance, that it is a mistake to explain 



FALLACIES 157 

things to people, and that they should be left to find 
out everything for themselves, is not uncommon. Here, 
what has been omitted is that many people are not 
trained to find out things for themselves, and it does 
not occur to them to do so ; and unless they have been 
trained in this, or even actually told to do it they will 
not do it for themselves. Of all the Fallacies which 
are worth working out, possibly the one I mentioned, 
namely, that Athenians were highly educated, would 
be the most instructive, for it is an offence against what 
may be called the Law of Averages. The speaker 
fixes his attention on the people who lived in some 
parts of Athens, the better classes, and who lived there 
at one period, as opposed to the early Athenians who 
were not very highly educated, and the later Athenians 
who were perhaps, if the expression may be pardoned, 
too highly educated to be really educated. They ignored 
those who were in other parts of Athens and Attica, 
and who lived at other times. They did not take an 
average before they made their statements. And the 
same applies to the statement that England is a 
prosperous nation. Let the reader now, in conclusion, 
examine the statement that England owes this pros- 
perity entirely to beef and beer, for it is a good type 
of a Fallacy. 

I have only given a very few examples and general 
principles here, and space forbids me to add anything ; 
but the reader will find it worth while to make a special 
study of Fallacies and their detection. He might take 
one of the Daily Papers (I will not give a list), and 
run through it, mentioning and classifying the various 
Fallacies which it contains. It would be a good morn- 
ing's work. 



158 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 



The following Rhyme may be of use, as including 
many kinds of Fallacies. 

It's Fallacy to judge by one sole standard, (and neglect 
time, place, conditions, causes, aims, the tendency, the 

effect). 
It 's Fallacy to treat the outward semblance as the soul, 
number and size as proofs of great importance, part as 

whole, 
Authority as truth, and custom as the best of all ; 
things done as things done purposely, one cause (how- 
ever small) 
or a circumstance or hindrance as the one and only 

source ; 
some one man's act as a Nation's act (and the converse 

too, of course) ; 
the immediate as the full effect ; one meaning of a word 
as another ; or to base remarks on premisses absurd : 
false Deduction, false Induction (like the pyramid re- 
versed), 
have many different aspects, and I know not which is 

worst. 
Bias may be for self alone, or family, or friends, 
or for a group in politics or for religious ends 
or other ends, or else for State or Nation as a whole : 
and 'Bias— -for' will also be against the other pole. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. DEFINITIONS. 



Many Writers and Speakers rush straight away into 
their subject without any Definition at all, and hence 
there are apt to be obscurities and misunderstandings. 
If we examine a discussion in a Paper or Review, we 
generally find that one cause of the quarrelling is that 
neither Writer has defined his subject, or else that the 
one Writer uses a certain word or words in one sense 
while the other Writer uses them in another sense. For 
Political arguments Sir George Cornewall Lewis' work 
has done much to remove misapprehensions. I remem- 
ber hearing one discussion on Religion : both parties 
were in a furious temper, and, though I did not see the 
reason at the time, it occurred to me afterwards that 
by Religion one of them meant superstition and mean- 
ingless ceremonies, whereas the other meant a following 
of conscience and an attempt to lead the highest 
possible life. On thinking over their arguments I 
found that neither party really disagreed with the other 
on any important point 

Supposing the subject is ' Democracy ', it is essential 
to define ' Democracy '. Is it to mean what we call 
Democracy, that is to say, is it to mean a Government 
by those rich men who are chosen by the whole popula- 
tion of householders? 

Again, when it is ' Freedom ' that we are considering, 
is it Freedom from legal justice, or Freedom from what ? 

I. It is often necessary, in defining terms, to take 
i59 



160 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

the Period-Headings and apply them ; e.g. they would 
help a good deal towards a Definition of Freedom, by 
showing in what spheres the Freedom is to be found. 

2. If we look at a statement like this : " The art of 
Essay-Writing cannot be taught ", we must define what 
is meant by this. Does it mean the power of writing 
Essays perfectly or the power of writing them better 
than we wrote them previously? Now a great help 
towards a Definition and indeed, as we shall see, 
towards Clearness in general, is the use of a personal 
and Concrete form, in answer to the questions (p. 233), 
" Who does What, etc ? " The New Testament is con- 
spicuous for this personal expression, whereas many 
treatises on Ethics and Religion are one mass of abstract 
terms. 

3. Instances also help the Definition considerably. 
If we are asked for an Essay on Tyrants (see p. 54), we 
must think of Instances of Tyrants : e.g. Phalaris was a 
General before he became a Tyrant, and as a Tyrant 
he was said to be cruel ; Pisistratus was popular 
among the poor, while he himself was rich. The 
Instances must be collected from every place and 
every time, and Parallels must be included. Thus, 
besides Greek Tyrants, one might mention the Czar of 
Russia, or Napoleon. 

4. Comparisons (see p. 281) may help a good deal, and 
Contrasts also. For example, we cannot well define 
' Freedom ' until we know what it is to be contrasted 
with, whether it is to be slavery or something else. 

5. Buckle, in his "History of Civilisation in England ", 
arrives at some Definitions by taking Exaggerated and 
Extreme cases, see p. 149. By this means he saw some 
one aspect by itself and saw this very clearly. 



DEFINITIONS 161 

6. Besides this, Questions (cf. above) are of very 
great value ; and Definitions should be tried experi- 
mentally. Guizot, in defining Civilisation, asked a 
number of Questions, and tried various answers : Was 
it this . . ., or that . . ., or that . . .? 

7. This might also be called the process of Exclud- 
ing. One excludes whatever is not really essential to 
the idea. For instance, Phalaris was said to have 
burnt people in a brazen bull, but the brazen bull was 
not essential here; the essential point was e.g. the cruelty. 
To arrive at a Definition, one should find out first of 
all what is common to all the Instances, then what is 
common to many of them, and then what is common 
only to a few, and lastly what is incidental or excep- 
tional. By this means one can make up a general kind 
of Formula* For instance, Tyrants were absolute rulers : 
in Greece Tyrants generally ruled only for a short time, 
they spent a great deal of money, they put down the 
oppression of the Nobles- and raised up the oppressed 
Commons, and united the whole State together. The 
Tyrant also was outside the Laws of the State and 
unprotected by them. He usually had to rely on 
military force. 

8. Last of all, it is only fair to give the views of others. 
We have to decide, it is true, on some single Definition, 
but, on the other hand, we must mention the fact that 
others may not accept this Definition when they use the 
same word : they may use it in quite a different sense. 

And, having made our Definition, we must be very 
careful to keep to it throughout : not to use a w r ord 
now in one sense and now in another. This is the 
commonest trick of dishonest Speakers and Writers 
and the one to be most conscientiously avoided. 

* We often have to be content (see p. 222) with certain features which 
the given Idea must contain. 
M 



CHAPTER XXIX. PARALLELS, COMPARISONS, 
AND CONTRASTS. 
(See Chapters LI.-LIII.) 



I HAVE treated Parallels, Comparisons, and Contrasts, 
under the heading of the Expression of Ideas, as I have 
considered their chief functions to be (see p. 281 foil.) 
to make Ideas clear, interesting, and suggestive, and 
— if necessary — to emphasise Ideas. 

Nevertheless, Comparisons and Contrasts are (or 
should be) by no means confined to these functions : 
still less are they, as some seem to think, mere 
' Rhetorical Tricks '. They are also valuable in the 
Collection of the Ideas themselves : in fact (see pp. 286, 
293) they are almost certain to bring to light Ideas 
which might otherwise have escaped notice altogether. 

In a word, I do not think that the Ideas can be 
adequately Collected without the aid of Comparisons 
and Contrasts : I consider them an integral part of the 
Scheme of an Essay or Speech, before we have yet 
come to the Expression of Ideas. A Scheme with bare 
Ideas, unillustrated and uncontrasted, I should regard 
as an incomplete Scheme. 

But, for the sake of convenience, I have treated the 
two aspects of Comparisons and Contrasts (viz. as 
affecting the Collection, etc., of Ideas, and as affecting 
the Expression of Ideas) in single Chapters, in the 
Third Part of this Book. 



162 



CHAPTER XXX. QUOTATIONS. 



SOME Books, such as Sir John Lubbock's " Pleasures 
of Life ", simply teem with Quotations : and, as the 
book is apparently written for the People as well as 
for the cultured Few, this may be quite sound. For 
the People love and respect Quotations from Author- 
ities, somewhat as they love personalities about great 
or famous men and women, however trivial these 
personalities may appear. And the People respect 
Texts, even Texts which are pulled out from their 
context like pieces of Mosaic pulled out from their 
pattern. 

But this must be said on the other side. Quotatiors 
often are a pandering to the taste of the People, ot 
forcing upon them of words which may be very 
rhythmical and high-sounding, but which are often 
ill-understood or even misinterpreted. 

The whole question of the use of Quotations is one 
well worth a special treatise : only a few of its many 
sides can be touched on here. 

First of all, as to the Quotation of actual words. 

Quotations of Poetry should of course be given 
word for word, but opinions differ as to Prose Quota- 
tions. There are many who say that they also should 
be given word for word. 

A very great deal must depend on how far the Ideas 
are well and clearly expressed in the Quotation. It 
would seldom be a good thing to quote Herbert 
163 



164 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Spencer word for word, for, among other things, his 
English is seldom clear to an average reader. 

Besides this, it is hard to remember Quotations word 
for word, and there have been many who have learned 
such Quotations and who now think of the words 
rather than the sense : they repeat them as a parrot 
might, and not with understanding. This may be 
(see p. 87) chiefly the fault of the way of learning the 
Quotation. 

Nevertheless, there must be many Prose Quotations 
which must be quoted absolutely as they are in the 
original. 

Those who are against such Quoting say that you 
ought rather to get hold of the underlying Idea and 
express it in your own way : the Idea then will not be 
your own original Idea, but will be the next best thing 
to it. At any rate you will be sure to have made it your 
own before you offer it to the reader ; whereas, if you 
quote the exact words, there is little guarantee that you 
have understood the sense, or that the reader or hearer 
will understand it. 

This applies in particular to foreign Quotations. 
These should nearly always be translated, unless they 
be for learned Readers only. The number of such 
Quotations which average people can understand is 
very very small, and a translation which gives the 
sense is generally much better than the original words. 
In our ordinary Classical teaching at Public Schools and 
at Cambridge, I have found by experience that almost 
the whole of the attention is given to the words and 
Language, and that the learners go away from School 
or from Cambridge with the very vaguest notion as to 
the Ideas themselves. I believe that the Classics would 



QUOTATIONS 165 

teach them far more if, throughout Schools and the 
Universities, they were studied in good English Trans- 
lations at any rate to begin with; but this is by the 
way. 

A few poetical Quotations are extremely good for 
both Books and Essays and Speeches : many from 
Shakespeare, and some from Cowper and Tennyson, 
for example, may be used again and again and again. 
It is worth while to buy a good book of Selections from 
the Poets, and to learn once for all (see p. 88) a few 
of these which seem most likely to be of use in Essay- 
Writing or Speaking. A friend of mine had one 
Quotation from Tennyson, and he (of course exaggerat- 
ingly) said he would defy anybody to give him the 
Essay-subject into which he could not introduce that 
Quotation. 



CHAPTER XXXI. HOW TO SELECT 

AND REJECT HEADINGS 
(UNITY, ETC.). 



NEITHER in the Collection of Headings, nor in this 
department, the Selection and Rejection of Headings, 
should there be any thought as to how these Headings 
are to be Arranged, or how they are to be Expressed. 
The attention must be concentrated on the question, 
' Which Headings, if any, are to be rejected ? ' 

A great deal will depend upon the readers or 
hearers whom one is addressing, the chief principle 
being Appropriateness. It is not enough that a Head- 
ing should have something to do with the subject, but 
it must be appropriate to the particular readers or 
hearers, and to the particular object and aim which one 
has in view. 

Another principle is Economy. It is a pity to waste 
time and attention on certain Headings and Sub- Head- 
ings, when that attention had better be given to com- 
paratively few but vital points. This is particularly the 
case (see p. 19) with Speeches. 

This does not mean that every detail should be 
rejected, but (see p. 216) it means that you should 
reject only those details which do not throw light on, 
or emphasise, the main point. 

One or two further considerations are worth noticing. 
First of all, whether you think a Heading is worth 
putting in or not must be a matter of personal opinion 
166 



HOW TO SELECT AND REJECT HEADINGS 167 

and taste ; and this is one of the occasions where 
Originality comes in : you will have to judge for your- 
self, though of course you may do well to ask for 
advice. 

Secondly, it may be right to adopt certain Headings 
of which the importance is not quite obvious to you : 
every year people are finding out that something, which 
used to be neglected, was really worth taking into 
account ; the interest of the thing is at length dis- 
covered. Hence there are some points which may have 
to be inserted in Essays of certain types, even if you 
cannot yet say that these points are important or even 
interesting. You can easily add a note to the effect 
that they may prove important and interesting some 
day. 

Headings may be rejected, then, partly because 
they are inappropriate to the reader, considering the 
object which one has in view. This of course will 
include the rejection of Headings which have nothing 
to do with the actual subject. 

Headings may also be rejected because, if they 
were to be put in, they would make the Essay or 
Speech too long ; they might be interesting but they 
would tend to distract the attention. 

Other Headings may. be rejected because they are 
untrue or -unfair, although to mention an unfair argu- 
ment, if you also say why it is unfair, is often the very 
best way of dealing with it — far better than omitting 
it altogether. 

Other Headings can be omitted or should be omitted, 
either because they are unhealthy, using the word in a 
wide sense, or else because they are unkind or apt to 
hurt people's feelings. On the other hand there is in 



i68 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC 

England a great deal too much prudery about men- 
tioning subjects which are some of the most important 
in life, and there is a great deal of misguided ' charity ' 
which shrinks from mentioning things for fear of 
offending someone or other, and probably for fear of 
some personal loss. The motive may seem excellent, 
but the effect may be exactly like that of never cor- 
recting the faults of children. 

As helps towards rejecting Headings, the Aim and 
the readers should constantly be kept in view ; and 
there is something to be said for the plan of writing 
the end of the Essay before one does any tiling else, if by 
this means the goal will be kept in view throughout. 

Two or three Exercises may be suggested as practice 
here. 

i. First of all, take your own Composition, or any 
other, and, after you have got the Scheme or Analysis 
of it, cut out whatever you consider to be inappropriate, 
etc. Of course it is very hard to cut out some Idea 
which you wish to air, for instance some interesting 
suggestion. And there is scarcely any learned man 
who has not spoilt many of his Books or Articles or 
Speeches, or some' of them, by masses and masses 
of information which may be interesting in itself but 
is not appropriate, either to the aim or object in view, 
or to the readers. To take an instance, Commentaries 
on the Classics or on Ancient History should be studied 
from this point of view : they contain folios of such 
learning as is singularly out of place just where it is, 
eg. in School-books, however accurate it may be, and 
however interesting, for other purposes. 

2. Another Exercise is to ' mark ' the Ideas according 
to their importance, for instance, to give the most 



HOW TO SELECT AND REJECT HEADINGS 169 

important Ideas ten marks and the least important 
one mark or none at all. See further the following 
Chapter. 

3. But a still better Exercise perhaps is to take great 
Orators and Writers, and to make an Analysis or 
Scheme of their Ideas, and then to see how much 
they have rejected. You will find plenty of facts 
and plenty of arguments which might have been in- 
serted, e.g. in a speech of Demosthenes. But now 
you can ask yourself whether the omitted things were 
omitted because they were not appropriate to the 
readers or audience, or to the Aim of the Author or 
Speaker, or whether they were not put in because they 
never occurred to the Author at all. This will lead 
you to think over the reasons for Selecting and Reject- 
ing Ideas. 

In my own opinion the Rejecting of Ideas is the 
hardest part of Essay-Writing : it needs tremendous 
self-control and self-sacrifice, and it cannot but have a 
powerful effect on the character. To be able to say 
to oneself, ' Such-and-such a Heading will interest the 
readers, but I must reject it because it has nothing 
to do with my present Aim ', and actually to reject it, 
not only needs very great self-control at the moment, 
but must be most excellent self-discipline for the whole 
of life. 



CHAPTER XXXII. HOW TO PROPORTION AND 
UNDERLINE THE HEADINGS. 



WHEN the Ideas have been Collected and Selected, 
then the Writer or Speaker must concentrate his 
attention on Underlining those Ideas which are most 
important, or rather those which seem to him to be 
most important ; for here personal opinion and taste 
must again come into play. 

The Collection of Ideas, and the Selection and Re- 
jection of Ideas, are already off his hands : he need 
not trouble about these any longer. And he must not 
yet trouble about the Arrangement of Ideas, or about 
their Expression : these will come later on. Nor need 
he trouble about how he is actually to Emphasise the 
Ideas ; that will be left to the Arrangement of Ideas, 
and (see p. 268) to various other means, such as Repeti- 
tion, Comparisons, Contrasts, etc. 

Here he only has to decide which Ideas he considers 
to be rather important, or appropriate, or interesting 
and suggestive, and under these he should put a single 
line ; more important, etc., Ideas should have a double 
line under them ; and the most important, etc., Ideas 
should have three lines. 

But the other extreme, the least important, etc., 
Ideas, could either be cut out or else have no particular 
sign to mark them. The Sub-Headings, that is to say, 
the Ideas under the Main Headings, can be marked 
(see p. 59) by being Indented. 



HOW TO PROPORTION THE HEADINGS 171 

It will be necessary for you to Collect the Sub-Headings 
before you Underline : for, until you know the Sub- 
Headings of any given Main Heading, you cannot 
safely say whether that Main Heading is very im- 
portant, etc., or not. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. HOW TO ARRANGE 
THE HEADINGS AND 
SUBHEADINGS. 



When once you have begun to express Ideas in lan- 
guage, it is far too late to think of Arranging them : 
that is to say unless you have a special genius for this. 
The ordinary Essayist or Speaker who begins to write 
down or speak his Ideas at once, is (as we have seen on 
p. 45) trying to do a threefold or fourfold task, each 
part of which is extremely difficult in itself. He is, 
or ought to be, Collecting his Ideas, Selecting, and 
Proportioning them, Arranging them, and Expressing 
them. 

Of all these different tasks, probably the Arranging 
will be the hardest for him, partly because it is the 
least practised. After all, one has a good deal of 
practice in Collecting Ideas, and a good deal of practice 
in Expressing them : but in Arranging them one has 
little or none. In the whole of my education, I do 
not remember to have had a single lesson in the art. 
Obviously, however, this Arranging of Ideas should 
have been studied as a separate process all by itself. 

As a starting-point, I shall take a quotation from 
a celebrated authority on Essay-writing. I give it as 
a type of bad Arrangement, and, singularly enough, 
it comes out of a book on " the art of writing English ". 
It will be seen, for instance, that the Arrangement of 
the Ideas is very faulty for at least two reasons : first, 
172 



HOW TO ARRANGE HEADINGS 173 

that the order is altogether wrong, and secondly that 
what might have been expressed, and should have been 
expressed, under 13 headings has been expressed under 
28. A third fault would be that very important Ideas, 
such as No. 28, are put on exactly the same level as 
petty and trivial pieces of advice, which are scarcely 
worth mentioning at all. In Arrangement or classifica- 
tion, and in Proportion, the list is altogether to be 
censured. 

As an Exercise in Arrangement, let the reader him- 
self take these pages, and let him criticise the Arrange- 
ment, and then re-arrange the Ideas in a logical order. 

Let him devote some time to this, because the Ideas 
themselves will be of great value in Essay-writing. 

"GENERAL RULES. 

" 1. Vary the length of the sentence. Vary also the form. 

"'Diversify the sentence-type,' says Dr. Earle. 'The one 
rule is to be infinitely various '. — R. L. Stevenson. 

" 2. Never use foreign words or phrases, unless you are com- 
pelled to do so. 

" 3. Never begin a sentence — or a clause — with ' also '. 

" 4. Let the relative stand as near the antecedent as possible. 

" 5. Qualifying phrases and modifying adverbs should be 
placed as close as possible to the words they are to qualify or to 
modify. 

" 6. Let your sentences be always clear to yourself, and ascer- 
tain whether they are also clear to others. 

"7. A participle, being an adjective in function, must always 
have some noun or pronoun to which it is attached. 

" 8. Avoid such phrases as ' Of all others,' ' than any other '. 
' Other two ' for ' two more ' is a Scotticism. 

" 9. Let there be one subject in a sentence. 

"If more than one- be required, let its relation to the main 
subject be quite clear. Or : 'Do not change your nominative.' 

"10. Avoid tautology. 



174 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

"n. Avoid pleonastic expressions — like 'return back' or 're- 
turn back again '. 

" 12. Avoid exaggeration — even in the height (or the depth) of 
emotion. 

"13. Avoid such clumsy connectives as 'therein', 'thereby', 
' whereto ', ' whereupon ', ' wherefore ', etc. All of these are more 
or less antiquated. 

" 14. Use as many connectives as you can. Such easy connec- 
tives as 'again', 'once more', 'on the other hand', 'besides', 
give lightness to the composition. 

" 15. Shun cliches. 

"16. Do not begin your paper with 'The above title, 5 'The 
subject of this paper.' 

" 17. Be careful about the position of the word 'only'. 

" 18. Avoid repetition, unless it is really necessary or distinctly 
telling. 

" 19. Avoid archaic, quaint, or Biblical phrases. 

" Such phrases are not admissible in ordinary prose. 

"20. Be clear. 

" ' Care should be taken, not that the reader may understand 
if he will, but that he must understand, whether he will or not.' — 
QUINTILIAN. 

"21. Be simple. 

"22. Avoid the use of unnecessary adjectives. 

"23. Do not search for similes or metaphors. If the subjec 
naturally suggests them, they will come of themselves ; if they dot, 
not, they are better away. 

" 24. Emphasis may be gained by an inversion of the natural 
order of words. If you employ inversion, recollect that the most 
striking position in a sentence is the beginning ; and the next 
most emphatic, the end. 

"25. Be careful to avoid dislocation. 

"26. Draw up a short skeleton of what you are going to write 
about. 

" 27. Read your essay aloud after it is written — either to your- 
self, or to a friend, or to both. 

"28. Cut out those words you can do without, provided the 
sense and rhythm are not injured by the process." 



HOW TO ARRANGE HEADINGS 175 

The following errors may be mentioned, as a few out 
of many : — 

(i) No. 26 says " Draw up a short skeleton of what 
you are going to write about". This is quite in the 
wrong place : it should come first ; 

(ii) No. 16 says "Do not begin your paper with c The 
above title', 'The subject of this paper'. This should 
not be as late as 16; 

(iii) Nos. 4, 5, 17, and 25 might all come together; 
and so might 

(iv) Nos. 10, 11, 22, 28 ; 

(v) Nos. 13 and 19 ; 

(vi) Nos. 6 and 20. To put these two Sections apart 
is a piece of carelessness : no one who had carefully 
prepared his Scheme by the Card-System (p. 186) could 
possibly have fallen into this error. 

Let him now see whether his results are like mine : 
of course I do not put mine forward as final. But it 
will be seen that I suggest 13 Headings instead of 28. 

I put in brackets some comments to advice which I do not consider 
to be quite sound; and of course the Hints are very incomplete, 
and some are trivial (e.g. 16) ; the second remark in 8 is pedantic. 

I. \Collectio7i of Ideas and Arrangement] : — 

(26) " Draw up a short skeleton of what you are going to write 
about." [See p. 186.] 

II. {Beginning] : — 

(16) "Do not -begin your paper with 'The above title', 'The 
subject of this paper'." [See p. 258.] 

III. [Fairness] : — 

(12) "Avoid exaggeration — even in the height (or the depth) 
of emotion." [See p. 301.] 



i 7 6 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC 

IV. [Variety] : — 

(i) " Vary the length of the sentence. Vary also the form. . . ." 

V. [Subject of the Sentence, etc."] : — 

(9) " Let there be one subject in a sentence. . . ." 

(7) "A participle, being an adjective in function, must always 
have some noun or pronoun to which it is attached." 

VI. {Clearness, etc.] : — . 

(20) "Be clear. . . ." 

(6) " Let your sentences be always clear to yourself, and ascertain 
whether they are also clear to others." [See p. 227.] 

(21) " Be simple. That is, be yourself! " [But see pp. 45, 236.] 

VII. {Connectives, etc.]. 

(14) "Use as many connectives as you can. . . ." 

(3) " Never begin a sentence — or a clause — with also? 

(13) "Avoid such clumsy connectives as therein, thereby, whereto, 
whereupon, wherefore, etc. All of these are more or less anti- 
quated." 

VIII. [Con?iexio?i and Order] : — 

(25) " Be careful to avoid DISLOCATION." 

(4) " Let the relative stand as near the antecedent as possible." 

(5) "Qualifying phrases and modifying adverbs should be 
placed as close as possible to the words they are to qualify or 
modify." 

IX. [Choice of words — cp. VII. (13)] : — 

(19) "Avoid archaic, quaint, or Biblical phrases. . . ." 
(2) " Never use foreign words or phrases, unless you are com- 
pelled to do so." 

(15) "Shun cliches." 

X. [Brevity and Economy, etc.] : — 

(22) "Avoid the use of unnecessary adjectives." 

(28) " Cut out those words you can do without, provided the 
sense and the rhythm are not injured by the process." 

(11) "Avoid pleonastic expressions— like 'return back' . . ." 

(10) "Avoid tautology." [But see p. 254.] 

(18) "Avoid repetition, unless it is necessary or distinctly 
telling." 

(8) "Avoid such phrases as ' Of all others ', 'than any other'. . . ." 



HOW TO ARRANGE HEADINGS 177 

XI. [Emphasis] : — 

(24) "Emphasis may be gained by an inversion of the 'natural' 
order of words. . . ." [And see p. 268.] 

XII. [Metaphors]:— 

(23) "Do not search for similes or metaphors. If the subject 
naturally suggests them, they will come of themselves : if they do 
not, they are better away." [But see p. 162.] 

XIII. [Revision] : — 

(27) " Read your essay aloud, after it is written — either to your- 
self, or to a friend, or to both." 

For another instance of bad Arrangement, see Bain's 
" Rhetoric and Composition " (vol. i., p. xvi), where he 
has one great Heading for 

"CLEARNESS 
opposed to obscurity . . ." 
followed by another great Heading for 

"SIMPLICITY 

opposed to . . . difficulty in being understood." 

For every subject, for every set of Ideas, there is one 
best possible order, for each set of readers or hearers, for 
each class of Composition, and for each aim and object 
of the Writer or Speaker. 

A great authority on Style, namely Flaubert, used to 
spend whole days in finding the exact words by which 
to express his Ideas. One cannot consider it altogether 
a waste of time if one considers how much it must 
have improved his power of perseverance and accuracy, 
and his conscientiousness. But the art of Arranging 
Ideas would be equally worthy of such thorough treat- 
ment. The Ideas which one has Collected should be 
Arranged once, and, after an interval, should if necessary 
be re-arranged. 



178 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

To spend hours and hours or days and days over 
this process cannot be time wasted, because the power 
of Arranging must affect every single department of life. 
It can hardly be too often repeated that a power like 
this, when rightly acquired in any one department of 
life, can then be applied to any other department. The 
power of Arranging Ideas for an Essay will even help 
the power of arranging, let us say, things in a room 
or books on a shelf or things in a box or bag ; that is 
to say, provided that the art has been practised in tlie 
right way. In other words, it will produce a general 
power and facility for Arrangement. 

Only a few principles can be mentioned here. Very 
much, of course, as we have already said, must depend 
on the readers or hearers, on whether they are stupid 
or educated, whether they are general readers or 
specialists ; much also must depend on the aim or aims 
of the author ; much also on the subject itself, for 
instance, whether it is in the nature of scientific proof 
or in the nature of a light and easy conversation or talk. 

For example, a difficulty often arises as to whether 
one shall put the Instances before the Principle, or vice 
versa. One has Instances to illustrate a Principle, and 
a Principle which may be illustrated by Instances. 
Which shall come first? A safe scheme for average 
purposes I have found to be the following, and I see 
it has been (unconsciously) applied by a large number 
of well-known Essayists and Speakers. 

i and 2. The Evidences for a statement or principle 
should be given. Or, as an alternative for No. I, 
Fallacies and wrong ideas on the subject may be refuted. 
Or either of these might be I, and the other would 
then be 2. 



NOW TO ARRANGE HEADINGS 179 

3. A single Instance — let it be as clear and as in- 
teresting as possible, to the readers — may now be given. 
The Instance might be introduced by some Comparison, 
if it were not sufficiently clear and interesting in itself 
(see p. 281). 

4. From this Instance should be drawn the Principle 
which it illustrates and embodies : 

5. This Principle may be still further illustrated by 
other Instances, or 

6. by Contrasts, which would perhaps do more to 
illustrate and to emphasise it than anything else 
possibly could (see p. 291). 

7. If there are other Principles, they may be intro- 
duced in the same way, viz. at first by a single Instance. 

8. A Summary at the end may gather together and 
tabulate all the Principles, which may now need to be 
re-arranged in the best possible order. 

9. Exceptions to the Principles, and Objections to 
them, with answers, may come at the end, or they may 
precede No. 8. 

Of course this is only a general order, and is liable to 
many changes. 

Some tests of good order, in many types of more 
serious Essays or Speeches, would be as follows : — 

1. When you have read the Essay, and have remem- 
bered the first Heading, then the other Headings ought 
to follow easily, as if all of them had been linked 
together : just as, if you were given one link in a chain, 
you ought to be able to pull the whole chain towards 
you by means of that link. 

But this is a test not only of Arrangement but also 
of Connexion. There are very few Essays which will 



i So IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

stand this test. Most of them contain several tran- 
sitions of a very jerky kind. The reader has to jump 
from one point to another, and does not slide uncon- 
sciously over the joint. 

2. Anyhow, certain clear Ideas should be left behind 
in your mind as to the ' Pros and Cons ' of the case, 
and there should not be too many Ideas left behind, but 
rather several very important points in the foreground, 
and much in the middle distance, and still more in the 
background. 

3. Throughout, the Essay should have been interest- 
ing (and, if possible, suggestive). Of course the 
Interest cannot be entirely dependent on the Arrange- 
ment alone. But it is surprising how, with a given 
number of Ideas, expressed in similar words, one 
Arrangement will make them interesting and another 
Arrangement will make them dull. 

Among the difficulties of Arrangement is the difficulty 
of harmonising these two principles, namely Interest 
and Connexion. Both of them must be considered, as 
well as the other principle of Proportion. 

The Ideas should be arranged according to their 
importance, and in such a way that one may naturally 
lead to another, and that the Interest may be sustained 
throughout. 

It will be noticed here that I have said nothing about 
the omission of unnecessary Ideas. This belongs, not 
to Arrangement, but to another department of Essay- 
writing and Speaking, namely to Selection and Rejec- 
tion. The Essayist or Speaker should have Selected 
and Rejected his Ideas before he thinks of Arranging 
them. 



HOW TO ARRANGE HEADINGS 181 

The following general principles may apply to a good 
many Compositions. 

1. When you have Collected the Main Headings, and 
under them the Sub-Headings, and under these again 
the Sub-Sub-Headings, then take the Main Headings 
first and Arrange them. This is best done by the 
Card-System (see p. 186). Group together those which 
are akin, under one great Heading or general notion. 
This should be the first aim, namely to collect together 
such Headings as come into the same class, beneath the 
same roof, as it were. 

On p. 92 we have seen that a ' group ' might be 
formed of Ideas which are all Causes or Hindrances of 
something, or which are Effects of something, or which 
are Objections to your Ideas, and so on. 

2. You may possibly have two or three such classes 
(see p. 185); but outside these classes there may still 
be certain isolated Main Headings which do not seem to 
fall into any one class. How are these to be Arranged ? 
Often one is driven to Arrange them in a certain order 
merely because some casual item under one Heading 
will lead on to the next Heading, that is to say, there 
may be no real vital connexion between the two but a 
mere word about one will serve as a transition to the 
other, just as it so often does in conversation : e.g. 
1 Talking of so-and-so and William Arthur, reminds me 
that Arthur Jones is ill '. 

3. The order adopted by Demosthenes was very 
different from this. As one reads one of his Speeches 
there seems to be no Arrangement whatever, and yet he 
must have Arranged his subjects as carefully as possible ; 
and the same will apply to the section (which I have 
given on p. 212) from the "Sermon on the Mount". 



1 82 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

There is apparent disorder and want of Arrangement, 
whereas there is really an extremely scientific Arrange- 
ment, which has succeeded in appearing casual. It has 
concealed its art. . 

What is the principle of this ? It is in the main to lead 
up to a single Idea from different points (see p. 215). To 
start with something which, apparently, is merely inter- 
esting and has no connexion with the topic, and then 
gradually to lead on to the Idea which one wishes to 
emphasise ; and so the point comes for the first time. 
Then a new topic is started, interesting again, but 
apparently unconnected with the first ; but gradually 
this leads up to the same point as before. When this 
has been done four times, let us say, then that point 
has been emphasised. This method is particularly 
adapted for appealing to average people, for instance, 
to a large popular audience. The advantage of it is 
that the Interest can be kept up throughout. The 
curiosity can be excited, for the people will be saying 
to themselves, ' Why on earth is he talking about this, 
which is surely quite off the point?' 

And not only is there Interest, but there is also 
Variety. In the reading of that passage on the Sermon 
on the Mount, it does not occur to the casual reader 
that Jesus, throughout, was speaking of only one thing. He 
seemed to be speaking of many things : of the preacher, 
of sheep and wolves, of fig-trees and thistles, of the 
Day of Judgment, of the house built on rock or 
on sand ; and yet all these parts have one Aim. 
They are all on the same subject, but they approach 
it from different points of view. For teaching pur- 
poses, this method is almost as indispensable — as it is 
unusual. 



HOW TO ARRANGE HEADINGS 183 

When an Essay or Speech adopts a more 'methodical' 
Arrangement, it should work on the following lines. 

The Beginning, or rather the Beginnings, should be 
Interesting. 

The 'Middle' or mass, should be more solid and should 
contain the most important part of the work ; but, 
within the Essay or Speech, Proportion must be obser- 
ved, so that Ideas which the writer thinks important 
may stand out as important, and trivial ideas may be 
thrown into the background. 

The Ending, except in lighter literature, should be 
not so much Interesting as Impressive. 

This rule, which applies to an Essay or Speech, 
applies equally to a Book, as we all know (see p. 258), 
and to a Paragraph, and to some extent even to a 
Sentence. But, in these two latter spheres, the principle 
of Connexion (p. 263) is also to be considered. 

What is the best practice for Arrangement? 

1. To give oneself an object in view, one ought to 
'Arrange' for some special purpose, whether it be for 
Teaching or for Lecturing or for an Article ; this will 
make the work more interesting. 

2. And notice that the first Arrangement should not 
be accepted as final. Second thoughts are sometimes the 
best. An interval (see p. 330) may be a wonderful aid. 

3. What is called Precis-writing, or Summarising? 1 
is a great help to Arrangement. That is to say, one 
hears or one reads some subject (e.g. a series of Letters 
or Articles), and then one reproduces it. Only this 
itself is hardly practice in Arrangement. The Arrange- 
ment must come afterwards. Supposing a Master read 

* For the suggestion as to Summarising Parliamentary and other 
Speeches, see p. 387. 



i84 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

out to his class an interesting Article on some subject, 
his class could write down on Cards the Ideas which 
they remembered, and the full List of Ideas or Headings 
could be given by the Master ; so far, again, there would 
be no practice in Arrangement. But if the packets of 
Cards which each boy had were shuffled and then were 
re-arranged by each boy, and if then the Arrangement 
were criticised by different boys or by the whole class, 
and if free criticism were allowed, then we should have 
an excellent piece of practice in Arranging, as well as 
in Collecting and remembering Ideas. 

4. It should be always borne in mind that many 
different Arrangements may be fairly good for the same 
set of Ideas, e.g. according to the different objects and 
aims of the Writer or Speaker. 

5. Finally, Indenting is of importance. When one 
Main Heading has under it certain Sub-Headings, these 
Sub-Headings should always go just a little 'inland', not 
directly beneath the Main Heading, but just a little more 
to the right. The advantage of this is obvious. It 
makes the Main Headings easier to revise by them- 
selves, and the Sub- Headings by themselves, and it 
helps to show what is more important and what is less 
important. The 'Sub-Sub-Headings 5 should be still 
further indented. 

The power of Arranging Ideas is seldom born with 
a man. It nearly always has to be 'made'. But it is 
wonderful how practice will improve it. One might 
compare what practice will do in the way of packing 
bags. A skilful packer will get into a bag half as much 
again as an unskilful packer. There are some who are 
born with the art of packing bags, but most people have 
to (or ought to) learn it for themselves. 



HOW TO ARRANGE HEADINGS 185 

Another comparison suggests itself here, and that is 
that, after a railway journey, a bag which has seemed 
quite full at the start is shown to have sorted its con- 
tents somewhat differently, and, of its own accord, as it 
were, to have arranged them more scientifically and 
more economically. The brain does very much the 
same with its Ideas. Leave your Ideas alone in your 
brain for a week, and you will probably find that in the 
meanwhile they have arranged themselves quite satis- 
factorily, and have bred other Ideas as well. 

In spite of the great value of Arrangement and of 
practice in Arrangement, however, it is a part of 
Composition that is very little studied : its import- 
ance is seldom insisted on, nor is bad Arrangement 
easily detected. This may be partly because, as we 
actually Write or Speak (or read or listen), we are 
apt to concentrate our attention rather on, e.g., the 
Vocabulary, the Rhythm, the order of Words, the 
Syntax, and the Ideas themselves. Another reason 
w r ould be that its Principles are little known or studied 
or applied as a special art. A third reason would be 
that Analysing and Precis-writing are a 'habit' little 
practised and cultivated in our ordinary Education : and, 
without such Analysing, the Arrangement of Ideas or 
Headings is incredibly difficult. 

As an Exercise in Arrangement, let the reader try to Arrange the 
Causes of Rome's Success (see pp. 10, 83, 263): e.g. The Senate, 
Alliances, Family Life, Geography, Roads, Etruscan Kings, 
Colonies, Character, Slaves, Individual Leaders, Mixture of 
Peoples in Rome, Extension of Rights to Aliens, Organisation (in 
Religion, etc.), Treacher} 7 , Unity, Isolation of Others, Weakness of 
Enemies, Slaves, Gradual Conquest, and so on. One Arrangement 
will be suggested in " How to Remember." For another Exercise, 
see p. 277. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. THE CARD-SYSTEM. 



The Card-System applies, as we shall see, not simply 
to Ideas and Headings for Essays and Speeches, but 
also to Mems and Quotations ; and for Index-writing 
it is inestimable. 

There are certain Objections to the Card-System, and 
the first might be that it would be expensive. But, as 
a matter of fact, each Card might be used four times, 
or even six or eight times. Supposing, however, that 
each Card were only used three times, even then the 
rate for a thousand words of Writing or Speaking 
would be quite trifling, if each Card contained, let us 
say, ten words ; for the Cards only cost half-a- crown 
a thousand, and can be had for two shillings. 

At first, also, it might be thought that the Cards 
would be inconvenient to use, but the personal ex- 
perience of thousands shows that, at any rate for 
business-purposes, exactly the reverse is true. The 
Cards are quite easy to carry about when one is 
travelling, if only one uses elastic bands or Cabinets or 
Card-holders ; and any kind of inconvenience will very 
soon disappear after a little practice. 

And the same will apply to the objection that the 
System is unusual. Seldom have there been any new 
suggestions which have not been condemned as 'un- 
usual ', and, if one tried to introduce the System in 
Examinations, where it certainly ought to be intro- 
duced, one would be met by this objection — 'We are 
not in the habit of allowing Cards'. But this is no 
fair condemnation. In Examinations, paper can be torn 
up into small oblong pieces, which will serve as Cards. 
1 86 



THE CARD-SYSTEM 



187 



The System may now be explained briefly. It has 
often been misunderstood. For instance, one lady 
entirely missed the point, and wrote down twenty 
Ideas on a single card. In such a case the Card- 
System had no great advantage over the ordinary 
Memorandum-system, or even over the Note-book. 

1. The principle is to buy Cards at half-a-crown a 
thousand, or even less, and on them to write Headings, 
and not Sentences, copying o?ily one Heading on one Card, 
and of course writing only on one side of the Card at 
a time. The Cards can be turned afterwards. 

2. If there are any Sub- Headings, these can come 
either on separate Cards following the main Heading, 
or (but this is not so good) on the same Card, but 
indented (see p. 59). To keep the Sub-Headings on 
separate Cards is far the best way. 

3. These Cards (if used only once) should be labelled 
and catalogued very carefully. 

4. A great help towards Arrangement and Clearness 
is to have Cards of different sizes and shapes, and of 
different colours, or with different marks on them : 
see below. There should also be a Card-Tray, or a 
box with compartments in it, such as shown in the 
following illustration. Of course the Tray might have 
an open top. 




188 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC 

5. Above all, there must be no false economy \ for the 
Cards are extraordinarily cheap — so cheap that there 
can scarcely be one of my readers whose time would 
not be far more precious to him than the few pence 
which he might save by such economising. 

6. It is also important to have thin elastic bands with 
which to tie up the packets. 

7. In using the Cards, and in filling in the Headings, 
one should employ Abbreviations freely: a few of them 
have been suggested on p. 70. 

Some special Marks may be added here. 



Special Marks on Cards: — 




End of Para- 


6. Connecting Link 


7. An omission, 


8. A doubtful 


graph (or 


between two 


e.g. to be 


point. 


Chapter). 


Sentences or 


filled in after- 






Paragraphs, 


wards. 





THE CARD-SYSTEM 189 

These are only a few Samples : they could easily be 
altered or added to. The Abbreviations and Marks need 
be clear only to the Writer himself. They save ever so 
much time. 

8. After the Headings and Sub-Headings have been 
written, they can then be Arranged, and 

9. finally can be embodied in a .Scheme, if there is 
time. Before they are ready for the Scheme, however, 

10. they should be put aside for a long interval, so 
that, e.g., additions can be made to them. When they 
have been finished they may be spread out on a table 
or on several tables. If you can get a table with pegs, 
or something to mark the divisions between the packets, 
it will be so much the better. To mark Main Headings 
you might have coloured Cards, for instance, blue Cards, 
or else larger Cards. 

11. You should always carry a feiv Cards about in 
your pocket, in case you should think of anything useful, 
for instance, during a walk. It will be very easy to 
distribute these Cards afterwards in their proper packets. 
You should keep a special place for these miscellaneous 
Headings, and these you should sort at intervals. 

12. So far we have considered only just the Main 
Headings and the Sub-Headings. But it would be 
possible, and it would be advisable, if the work has to 
be carefully done, to apply the Card-System to 'Con- 
nexions ', i.e. to write on Cards the connecting link be- 
tween each Idea and the Idea that follows ; and it may 
be as well to apply the System even to Paragraphs, 
that is to say, before you write a Paragraph to write on 
Cards the Headings for the different sections of it. 

It may be mentioned, by the way, that to treat the 
written Paragraphs on a similar System is also a great 



I9C IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

saving of time, that is to say, when you are copying 
out the Essay itself, to write each Paragraph on a 
separate piece of paper. If you do this, you will have 
far less re-writing when you come to copy out the 
Essay finally. But this applies rather to Writing for 
the Press. 

13. At first it is a mistake to think of anything else 
except the mere jotting down of Ideas. The Ideas should 
be jotted down, each on its own Card, and the Sub- 
Headings should be jotted down on their own Cards, 
a little way 'inland'. Afterwards there will be time 
enough to subdivide the topics, and to re-arrange them ; 
but at the beginning you must concentrate your atten- 
tion on the Collection of Ideas, and must not think at 
all about the Arrangement. 

This is the great advantage of the Card-System over 
the ordinary Scheme (on a single sheet of paper), for 
with the latter one has to be thinking of two things at 
the same time, namely, of the Arrangement of the 
Ideas as well as the Collection of the Ideas. 

14. When it does come to the Arranging, the Cards 
sho?dd be arranged something like a liand at Whist. 
And you will find it very easy to alter, to add, or to 
take away, for you can always substitute a nezv Card or 
remove an old one. 

15. The old Cards can be used in many ways. You 
can turn them upside-down, and treat the other end 
similarly, then you can turn them over and the backs 
of them will give you two more spaces to be used. 
Some might even use the four sides also ! After the 
Cards are entirely covered, they can be used for scrap- 
books for Hospitals. 

16. The System can be applied to other purposes 



THE CARD-SYSTEM 191 

besides Essay-writing, such as, for instance, the Arrange- 
ment of people at a dinner-party ; but here I am only 
speaking of their use for literary purposes. The ad- 
vantages of this System I shall treat of in the next 
Chapter, but I may say here, by way of anticipation, 
that they enable one to concentrate one's attention on 
the Collection of Ideas as apart from their Arrange- 
.ment and Expression ; that they are easier and quicker 
to use, if alterations have to be made ; that they can be 
worked with extraordinary rapidity, especially if they 
are combined with Dictation (see p. 69), and if they 
have been practised for some time. As to rapidity, 
it is possible to dictate from Cards an Article of three 
thousand words, that is to say, such a one as might 
appear in the "Nineteenth Century", in half an hour. 
The preparation by the Card- System might take twenty 
minutes, if one knew the subject well ; the arrangement 
ten minutes ; and the dictation thirty minutes. 

I arrived at the Card-System by degrees, and was glad to find 
that Prof. Wendell also recommended Cards. I have elaborated 
the System considerably in the last few months, and now I generally 
use the Cards of the Library Bureau (Bloomsbury Street, London), 
or those by Messrs. Evans and Hallewell, 5, Ave Maria Lane, 
London, E.C. The latter are the cheaper. 



CHAPTER XXXV. ADVANTAGES OF 

THE CARD-SYSTEM. 



On the advantages of the Card-System I have already 
said a few words. These advantages can now be con- 
sidered somewhat in detail. 

I have already spoken of their use for purposes of 
Connecting, e.g. of giving Causes and Effects, and for 
keeping the right Proportion of importance (see p. 189). 
Other points now remain to be considered. 

1. As I have said, they are very cheap, for they can be 
obtained at less than half-a-crown a thousand ; and each 
Card can be used at least four times. 

2. They are very portable, especially if they have 
holes in them, and if boxes are made in which they 
may be kept : see p. 187. 

3. They are useful for other purposes, besides Essay- 
writing and Speaking. For instance, for Addresses, 
for Bills, and for Memoranda. 

4. They encourage a business-like brevity. 

5. They ensure wonderful rapidity. A whole book 
of thirty thousand words I have prepared (though of 
course only roughly) in two hours, by the Card-System. 
Such a pace would have been impossible otherwise. 
This does not include any of the Dictation ; it merely 
includes the Collection and Selection of Ideas, and 
their Arrangement. The System is a wonderful saving 
of time, partly because so few Headings have to be 

192 



ADVANTAGES OF THE CARD-SYSTEM 193 

re-written. Each Idea has only to he written once. 
Another reason why it saves time is that here you can 
imply things instead of having to express them in full, 
for your Card-System and its Headings need only to be 
clear to yourself (see p. 67), whereas a complete Essay 
or Speech must be in Sentences and must be clear to 
your readers or hearers as well. In the Cards you can 
use all kinds of Abbreviations (p. 70) : these, again, 
need only be clear to yourself. 

6. As to the effect upon the writing -out, very feiv 
pages have to be re-written. Instead of perhaps twenty 
or thirty pages in a Book, you will have to re-write not 
more than two or three, and these will generally be in 
the Preface, where re-writing is almost inevitable. 

7. Another good effect upon the writing-out will be 
that the number of words will be very small. It is worth 
while to make the following experiment. Take an 
Essay-Subject and work it out in the common way, 
namely, by writing the Essay straight down, just as you 
think of the Ideas. Let us say that you give two hours 
to doing this. Now take this Essay, and count the 
number of words which it contains : let us say that it 
contains fifteen hundred. Next take the Essay and 
analyse it, writing down each Heading and each Sub- 
Heading on a separate Card. Take these Cards and 
re-arrange them, and, if necessary, alter, and add new 
Headings or Sub-Headings. Last of all, do the Essay 
over again from the Cards, and count the number of 
words. The Essay will probably be far better than it 
was before, better in Completeness, better in Clearness, 
and better in Arrangement ; yet I doubt if it would 
come to more than five hundred words, at any rate, if 
you are an average Essay- writer. It is quite obvious 

o 



194 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

that the gain both for the Writer or Speaker, and for 
the reader or listener, may be very considerable. 

8. It has been seen above that part of the System is 
to leave an interval after the Cards have once been 
written. During this interval, let us say of a week, if 
you can spare it, changes will be sure to occur to you. 
You will want to add some things, to alter others, and 
possibly to omit others. Now, supposing yon had already 
zvritten your Essay out, it would be very inconvenient to 
make these alterations; to put in a fresh paragraph 
here, or to alter half an old paragraph there, is tiresome 
work for the Writer, and produces an unpleasant result 
for the reader. With the Card-System this disadvan- 
tage is minimised. 

9. But the great merit is, as I have already stated, that 
the Card-System enables you to focus your attention oji 
one task at a time, arid especially on the Collection of 
Ideas. 

At first it may not seem obvious that this is a gain. 
But, considering the matter scientifically, you must see 
that your work will be better if you have not to bother 
about the order in which your Ideas have to come, but 
can freely write them down on Cards, by a process 
which is considerably quicker than Shorthand, and be 
quite sure that the Arrangement of these Cards after- 
wards will be easy as a separate task. Later on, you 
can concentrate your attention no longer on what your 
Ideas are to be, but on how they are to be Arranged. 
-And again, you can concentrate your attention, by 
means of the Card-System, on what Comparisons or 
Contrasts you are to use, what Fallacies you are to 
expose, and so on. Not only will you have Collected the 
greatest possible number of Ideas, and have Arranged 



ADVANTAGES OF THE CARD-SYSTEM 195 

them in the best way you can ; but each individual 
section of your Essay will be better and better Arranged 
by this System than by any other. Finally, when your 
Cards have been prepared, you can concentrate your 
whole attention on how to Express the Ideas. 

10. The Card-System will therefore be good practice 
for Writing generally, and I very often use it for impor- 
tant Letters: not merely because it improves the Letter, 
but also because it actually saves time. But it is not 
only for Writing that it is valuable : it is valuable for 
Speaking also. Anyone, who has practised the Card- 
System for some time, can prepare a Speech in a very 
few minutes : and this gift is simply inestimable. 

11. The power of Summarising and of Precis-writing 
which the Card-System gives is extraordinary : whereas 
to Analyse a piece of English (see p. 233) used to take 
me perhaps half an hour, it now takes me something like 
five minutes. It is interesting to notice, in a Telegraph 
Office, how long a time people take in composing their 
telegrams, and how the final result is often not nearly 
as good as it might have been. It is obscure, and 
perhaps a whole penny has been wasted ! The Card- 
System, which jots down Headings clearly, but briefly, 
is very good practice for this. 

12. Under 8 we have already seen how, as one is 
actually writing on or Arranging the Cards, there is a 
very good chance of new Ideas suggesting themselves en 
passant; and, when these new Ideas have suggested 
themselves, it is, as I have said, very easy to add them. 
It is easy to add new Cards to the pack, either at the 
time or later on. It is easy to take out Cards that you 
do not want, and to alter the Headings on those Cards 
which you already have. Again, when the Cards are 



196 IDEAS: HOW TO COLLECT, ETC. 

Arranged, the Card-System enables one to revise the 
Arrangement very quickly, and to alter it if necessary. 
And it is wonderful how it improves- the power of order 
and Arrangement. The process of solving the problem 
' Here are ten Ideas, eight of which have Sub-Head- 
ings : how ought I to arrange these Headings and Sub- 
Headings?' this process, by. itself is a valuable mental 
exercise. 

13. Once again, when these Cards have been written 
and Arranged, they are easy to refer to at a moment's 
notice. They become a possession for ever, and not a 
1 stereotyped' possession either : for you can always alter, 
add, or change, which is a great consideration. If you 
keep your Essays as Essays, it may take you a quarter 
of an hour to find some Idea in them if you wish to 
refer to it ; whereas, by the Card-System, the Idea can 
be found in a minute, simply because it is an Idea or 
Heading, and is not dressed (or hidden) in a Sentence 
or Paragraph. 

14. The Card-System would be useful for every kind 
of Book and Essay and Speech, and for most kinds of 
Letters. It is even a good thing to use it before an 
important conversation. Within the Book itself, it will 
apply to the Sections, Chapters, and Paragraphs. Each 
part of the Composition will benefit by it, but most of 
all the Expression and Style. This sounds at first a con- 
tradiction, because one would say that this was just the 
part of Composition which the Card-System did not 
concern ; but it is for this very reason that the Card- 
System helps Expression. It does everything else for 
you except the Expression, so that, when you come to 
this, it is the only thing left to be done, and you can 
devote every atom of your energy to it. I cannot but 



ADVANTAGES OF THE CARD-SYSTEM 197 

think that one of the reasons why ordinary Writings 
and Speeches are so obscure is that the Writer or 
Speaker has had to be Collecting his Ideas and Arrang- 
ing them and thinking out which are the most impor- 
tant, at the same time that he is trying to Express 
them (or rather that he ought to be trying to express 
them) in a way intelligible and interesting to the reader. 
How on earth can an ordinary person succeed in doing 
these many things at once? Obviously he is setting 
himself a Herculean task. By the Card-System, he 
would split up this task into parts, and would win a 
victory by conquering the enemy in detachments. 

Three words may be said by way of Summary. 

Firstly, do not economise Cards or paper. 

Secondly, make your Headings very brief; they need 
only be clear to yourself; and put each on a separate 
Card. 

Thirdly, do not be surprised if the System is a little 
awkward to handle at first. There never yet was any 
great result achieved in History without a slow and 
steady and even unsuccessful beginning. With time, 
however, the System will become easy and quick. You 
must not expect to reap the fruit till you have sown the 
seeds and watered the ground. 



Part III. 



PART III. HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE. 



CHAPTERS 

XXXVI. Expression of Ideas, and Style : 

General Notes . ... 

XXXVII. Difficulties and Faults in Expressing 

Ideas . ... 

XXXVIII. How to Find Characteristics of Expres- 
sion and Style : Matthew vii. 15-27, as an 
Illustration . . . . 

XXXIX. Originality .... 

XL. Force and Vigour 

XLI. Clearness, and Simplicity 

XL II. Brevity and Economy 

XLIIL Appropriateness, or Adaptation; and 
Unity . . . . 

XLIV. Variety .... 

XLV. Interest . . . . 

XLVI. Beginnings . ... 

XLVI I. Endings . . 

XLVI 1 1. Connexion and Cohesion 

XLIX. Emphasis . . . 

L. Absence of Emphasis . 

LI. Parallels . . 

LI I. Comparisons, Analogies, Etc. . 
200 



205 

211 
219 
222 
227 
239 

243 
251 

255 
258 
26l 
263 
268 
278 
279 
28l 



HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 



CHAPTERS 

LI II. Contrasts 

LIV. Questions 

LV. Other Rhetorical Devices 

LVI. Rhythm 

LVII. Chapters 

LVI 1 1. Paragraphs 

LIX. Sentences 

LX. Grammar, or Syntax 

LXI. Words, or Vocabulary . 

LXII. Writing, Spelling, and Punctuation 

LXIII. Revisions 



PAGE 
291 



299 

303 
308 
3IO 

315 
320 

324 
326 



CHAPTER XXXVI. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS, AND 
STYLE : GENERAL NOTES. 



THE Expression of the Ideas (Headings and Sub-~ 
Headings) cannot be finely distinguished from the 
Collection and Arrangement of Ideas. Thus we 
cannot say that the working out of Comparisons 
and Contrasts, for important Ideas, belongs entirely 
to the Collection of Sub-Headings or to the Expression 
of Headings. This is a place where the two Parts of 
Essay-writing meet ; and this is not the only place. 

My division of the Art of Composition into two 
main Parts is therefore convenient rather than accurate: 
the two Parts overlap and have neutral grounds. 

In order that the attention may be concentrated 
on the Expression of Ideas, the Collection, etc., must 
already have been finished. Even the Comparisons 
(p. 281), and the Contrasts (p. 291), should have been 
worked out carefully. Perhaps the Card-System (p. 186) 
has been used, or a Scheme (p. 59), or else the Card- 
System first, and the Scheme afterwards. 

The Ideas, then, we suppose to have already been 
Collected, Selected (and Rejected), Underlined, and 
Arranged. They now have to be Expressed ; and they 
should first be glanced through very quickly. 

In Expressing Ideas it is far harder to separate the 
processes in a similar way, and to attend to them one 
at a time. The next best thing is to criticise the 






EXPRESSION OF IDEAS, AND STYLE 203 

Expression afterwards, first with regard to Clearness, 
then with regard to Appropriateness, then Brevity, etc. 
leaving Rhythm till the end. 

It may be said that there is, for each Idea, a best 
possible Expression, according to 

the subject ; 

the class of Writing or Speech (e.g. Book, Essay, 

light Article, etc. — see p. 16) ; 
the readers or hearers ; 
the Aims of the Writer or Speaker (p. 48). 

Occasionally (e.g. in Shakespeare) we come across 
Expressions which we feel to be the best possible for 
all purposes and conditions. But these are rare. As 
a rule there will be a different ' best possible ', for 
different conditions. 

Flaubert, partly to distract his thoughts from his 
grievous ailments, used to spend hours and hours in 
searching for the best possible, especially the best 
possible word. And there is also, of course, the best 
possible Sentence, order of words, Rhythm, and so on. 



204 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 



A Ehyme (continued from p. 62), suggesting some 
Characteristics of Expression and Style. 

Style varies with the subject, causing anger, tear, or 

smile, 
excitement, scorn, calm reason, action, sympathy, or 

fear, 
(to the aim and audience fitted) ; holds the attention, 

and is clear. 
Music and Balance, Contrasts, 'Tropes', and Rhetoric 

should be seen. 
Then Punctuation, Grammar, Language, where ' Good 

Use' is queen. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. DIFFICULTIES AND 
FAULTS IN EXPRESS- 
ING IDEAS. 



When an Essay is being corrected at School, the 
Faults are usually marked (e.g. underlined) without any 
distinction : they are marked simply as Faults. But, 
if the Writer is to improve, he should find out exactly 
where the Fault lies, and hoiv it miglit have been avoided. 

We have already spoken of Faults which are Faults 
with regard to the Ideas. You may have made some 
mistake in Collecting Ideas, in Selecting them, in 
Proportioning them, or in Arranging them, quite apart 
from the way in which you have Expressed them, 
although even here the Expression cannot be altogether 
kept out of sight. 

But in the following pages I shall only speak of the 
Faults which people are apt to make in Expressing 
Ideas, apart from the Collection, etc., of the Ideas 
themselves. In other words, in this Chapter will be 
found the mistakes which people might make when 
they have already prepared their Scheme of the Essay 
or Speech, and now come to turn it into language. 

The Faults which I shall point out will be only 
generally Faults, and not universally so. For instance, 
there may be the Fault of what is called Prolixity, that 
is to say, where too many words have been put in ; but 
an apparently unnecessary number of words is not 
always a mistake. Brevity is a virtue in Style, but not 
when the Ideas are too compressed. There can be 
excessive Brevity. In the same way, there may be the 
205 



206 BOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Fault of a want of easy Rhythm, but easy Rhythm 
is not always a gain. There are occasions when the 
Rhythm can be too easy, when the attention can be 
fixed on the beautiful sound, as it often is in the 
reading of the Bible, so that the sense and the Ideas 
do not receive nearly enough attention. It would be 
interesting to analyse the effect of Bible-reading, so as 
to find out to what extent the beauty of the language 
prevents or distracts people from paying attention to the 
sense, in the same way that a beautiful tune might 
prevent people from paying attention to the words of 
a song or hymn. 

The following Faults, then, will be only generally 
Faults : and, at the outset, it is interesting to notice that 
Aristotle's definition of a Fault holds good almost 
throughout. He said that virtue was a mean between 
two extremes, e.g. that the right degree of Courage was 
somewhere between arrant cowardice at one extreme 
and foolhardy rashness and thoughtlessness at the 
other ; that Economy was somewhere between mere 
niggardly stinginess and lavish spendthrift carelessness. 
Throughout life, and throughout almost every subject, 
it is surprising how true this definition is. 

Take, for instance, Grammar or Syntax (see p. 320). 
There are certain rules of Grammar which it is a 
mistake to violate. One obvious extreme would there- 
fore be to ignore the rules of Grammar altogether. 
On the other hand, one can go too far in the direction 
of what one thinks to be good Grammar, and one may 
be fairly condemned as a pedant and an unpractical 
stickler for what may be called over- correctness. The 
objection to certain common constructions, which sound 
quite right to nine hundred and ninety-nine people out 



FAULTS IN EXPRESSING IDEAS 207 

of a thousand, is generally due to an ignorance of the 
principles of language. People insist to-day on a rule 
which held good perhaps fifty years ago. They forget 
that language has changed and is still changing. A 
good instance would be those who insist on people 
saying ' in the circumstances ', and not ' under the 
circumstances '. This is surely pedantry, and the 
defence of ' under the circumstances ' would be first 
of all that it had come to be used by a number of good 
writers, without its offending the ear of a number of 
able critics, and secondly that its origin was quite easy 
and natural. ' Under the conditions ' has always been a 
proper construction,* and, on the analogy of this, \ people 
have come to say 'wider the circumstances' also. 
Those who condemn this construction have not studied 
the principles according to which language has de- 
veloped. I have seen a whole book written on this 
principle, namely, that whatever was a rule fifty years 
ago, must still be a rule to-day. 

Obscurity and want of Clearness is a great Fault. 
The words may be too technical for ordinary readers 
or hearers, or the wrong words may have been chosen 
(see p. 325) ; or the words may be in the wrong order 
(p. 317). As to the other extreme, it is a question 
whether a sentence can be too clear, whether the Idea 
can be too simply expressed ; and, if we once admit 
that Carlyle's writings produced a greater effect and 
a better effect than they would have done if they had 
been perfectly clear, then we must admit that for 
certain purposes absolute Clearness is a Fault. 

A good illustration of Aristotle's rule is that of the 

* Cp. Latin. 

t See ' How to Learn Philology ' (Sonnenschein and Co.). 



208 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

right Length. Excessive Brevity, whether of Paragraphs 
or Sentences or Words, is generally a Fault, and may be 
called Baldness. Excessive Length, on the other hand, 
is a still greater Fault. To have too long Paragraphs, 
too long Sentences, too long Words, is worse than 
to have these too short. 

To take another instance. There can be too much 
uniformity and Monotony. If an Essay or Speech goes 
on in a similar Rhythm, with the Sentences and 
Paragraphs of the same or similar structure and length 
throughout, it will be guilty of the Fault of Monotony. 
If, on the other hand, the Writer or Speaker is per- 
petually changing his Rhythm, and the length of his 
Sentences and Paragraphs, unnecessarily, then he will 
be going to the other extreme of needless Variety. 
Here, as elsev/here, the ' mean ' must needs depend 
on a number of conditions, such as the subject, the 
Writer or Speaker, the Aim, and the audience. To 
change words unnecessarily is a great mistake. On 
the other hand, Tautology is to be avoided. In the two 
sentences which I have just written, the reader would 
do well to decide for himself whether I ought to have 
changed the words as I did, or not. In the sentence from o 
Froebel, on p. 325, the change is certainly unnecessary. 

Want of connexion, either between one Paragraph 
and another, or between one Sentence and another, 
or between the various Words in a Sentence, is to 
be avoided. Can there be at the other extreme too 
close a connexion within an Essay ? It is quite possible 
that occasionally a break and a fresh departure are 
necessary, in order to relieve the attention ; and a 
popular audience (see p. 212) often needs an (apparent) 
absence of connexions. 



FAULTS IN EXPRESSING IDEAS 209 

As to Comparisons and Contrasts^ the commonest 
Fault is to use too few. Sometimes there are none 
at all, and sometimes those of the wrong kind are 
chosen. On the other hand, it would be a mistake to 
have too many Comparisons and Contrasts, especially 
where the sense would be clear without them, and 
where the Idea is not to be emphasised. 

Repetition, in the same way, is not to be avoided 
altogether and is not bad altogether, especially where 
Clearness or Emphasis are helped by it, but otherwise 
mere Repetition for the sake of filling up, i.e. Repeti- 
tion which does not help Clearness or proper Emphasis, 
is an equally bad fault. 

As to Emphasis, again, it is a mistake to have no 
Emphasis at all, that is to say, to present all one's 
Ideas as if they were equally (un)important. A learned 
pedant was once described as having a brain full 
of millions of pieces of information which were all of 
the same size. Such a man had no Proportion. On 
the other hand, Emphasis may be grossly misused in 
the sense of being over-used. There is no better 
illustration of this than certain American Papers, which 
have devoted so much attention to Emphasis, and 
so many devices (such as thick type and notes of 
exclamation and underlining) in calling attention to 
what did not deserve attention at all, that, when they 
come to an Idea which really deserves attention and 
Emphasis, they have little or no means left by which 
to call special attention to it. 

The devices which are called Rhetorical Devices, 
such as the Question, the Epigram, etc. (see p. 299), are 
by no means to be avoided, but they must not be used 
to excess, especially when the subject (e.g. quiet 



210 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

description) is unsuited for them. Balance again is 
a noticeable feature of Rhetoric, but Thucydides is 
fond of using it to excess. 

Another Fault is the use of a harsh Rhythm, or of an 
inappropriate Rhythm : for (see p. 305 ) the two things 
are not the same. 

Bad Punctuation, or insufficient Punctuation, is 
another fault. It is doubtful if excessive Punctuation 
may not be a fault also. I am (probably rightly) 
accused of excessive Punctuation. 

Such are a few of the commonest Faults in 
Style or Expression. Others might be worked out 
by a consideration of the Merits of Style (see p. 204), 
and by a working out of the Faults by contrast with 
these Merits. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. HOW TO FIND CHARACTER- 
ISTICS OF EXPRESSION 
AND STYLE : MATT. 7. 
15-27, AS AN ILLUSTRA- 
TION. 



MANY Writers have earned a great reputation for 
Style, and some have undoubtedly deserved it. And 
yet, when we come to ask what Style consists in, no 
Writer seems to be able to tell us. Put a piece of bad 
Style before a critic, and he will say that it is bad ; he 
may even say where it is bad. Again, put a piece of 
good Style before him, and he will say that it is good. 
But ask him exactly why it is good, and he will pro- 
bably be at a loss. The attempts of so many who have 
a good Style themselves, to tell others the secret of 
it would be lamentable if they were not so ridiculous. 
I once read a long-winded Article in flowing English 
entitled " Style " ; after a great deal of inflated wordi- 
ness, the Writer eventually decided that Style was 
something which could not be described. 

Up to the present moment I have never come across 
any Writer who gives clear instruction as to how to 
find out the characteristics of anyone's style, and this 
Chapter must therefore be a somewhat crude attempt, 
seeing that it is, as far as I know, the first attempt in 
this direction. 

Let the Reader take a passage from the " Sermon on 
the Mount", and let him try to find out for himself 
what are the characteristics of its Expression and 



212 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Style ; let him write them down as separate Headings, 
one under the other. 

15 Beware of false prophets, which come to you in sheep's 

16 clothing, but inwardly are ravening wolves. By their fruits 
ye shall know them. Do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs 

1 7 of thistles ? Even so every good tree bringeth forth good 

18 fruit; but the corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit. A good 
tree cannot bring forth evil fruit, neither can a corrupt tree 

19 bring forth good fruit. Every tree that bringeth hot forth 

20 good fruit is hewn down, and cast 'into the fire. Therefore by 

21 their fruits ye shall know them. Not every one that saith unto 
me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven ; but 
he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven. 

22 Many will say to me in that day, Lord, Lord, did we not 
prophesy by thy name, and by thy name cast out devils, 

23 and by thy name do many mighty works ? And then will I 
profess unto them, I never knew you : depart from me, ye 

24 that work iniquity. Every one therefore which heareth these 
words of mine, and doeth them, shall be likened unto a wise 

25 man, which built his house upon the rock : and the rain 
descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat 
upon that house ; and it fell not : for it was founded upon 

26 the rock. And every one that heareth these words of mine, 
and doeth them not, shall be likened unto a foolish man, which 

27 built his house upon the sand : and the rain descended, and 
the floods came, and the winds blew, and smote upon that 
house ; and it fell : and great was the fall thereof. 



The reader will doubtless find the task very hard. 
He probably will not have any scientific method of 
procedure, and, when I tell him that the first thing to 
do is to take away the Ideas, and to leave them out 
of the question altogether, he will probably be very 
much surprised. Nevertheless it is so : if he wishes 
to criticise Style as Style, he must not consider the 
Ideas themselves for a moment : they may (to a great 
extent) be criticised apart. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF NT. EXPRESSION 213 

Let us then see what are the Ideas of this passage, or 
what is the Idea of it, and then we shall be able to 
concentrate our attention on finding out how the Idea 
or Ideas are Expressed. We shall therefore have to 
analyse the piece, and write the abstract of it, before 
we begin to examine into the Style. 

The gist of this piece is the answer to the question, 
' Who are the really good ? ' This, in the language of 
the Authorised and Revised Versions, would be, ' Who 
belong to the Kingdom of Heaven ? ', which conveys 
quite a different meaning to most ordinary people. 
This then will be the Idea of the piece, and the answer 
to the question is, that the really good are those who 
are good in their inmost nature, at their foundations, as 
it were, so that everything that they do, and everything 
that they produce, is bound to be good also. 

The reader, having now found the Idea, can come 
to see better how it has been Expressed. He can now 
try once again to find the Characteristic of Style, asking 
himself what is it that makes the Expression of this 
Idea so excellent in this passage. For in this passage 
a large number of the excellencies of Style are com- 
bined, that is to say in the original Greek. 

In case the reader should omit to notice that the 
language is simple, I offer a Version in simple English, 
from " The Teaching of Jesus To-day " (Grant Richards). 

Be on your guard against all the pretended representatives of 
God, who come to you looking like sheep,, when all the time they 
are really hungry wolves : it is by what they produce that you 
must class them ; for instance, you don't get bunches of grapes off 
thorn-bushes, or figs off thistles, do you ? It is the very nature of 
good trees to produce good fruit, and of rotten trees to produce bad 
fruit : it is as impossible for a good tree to produce bad fruit, as it 
is for a rotten tree to produce good fruit ; you know this is so, for 



214 BOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

the trees which do not produce good fruit you cut down to be 
burnt. Yes, it is by what they produce that you must class 
them. 

It is not every one who goes on calling me 'Master' that will 
enter into God's unseen world : they only will enter in who do 
what pleases my unseen Father. When the day comes, many 
will say to me : ' Master, Master, surely we called ourselves 
" Christians " ? Surely we preached as " Christians ", surely as 
" Christians " we were kind to those that were ill, surely as 
"Christians" we did many wonderful things?' Then I shall 
speak straight out to them and tell them : ' You have had no 
kind of connection with me : away from me, you who are sinful 
in what you do. : Any one, then, who listens to what I say and 
also does what I say, may be compared to a sensible man who 
had built his house on rock : afterwards, when the rain came 
down and the rivers were flooded and the winds blew and beat 
against that house, it did not fall, for its foundation was rock : but 
any one who listens to what I say, and does not also do what 
I say, may be compared to a foolish man who had built his house 
on sand : afterwards, when the rain came down and the rivers 
were flooded and the winds blew and beat against that house, 
it fell : and its fall was terrible. 



Let us notice, by way of preface, that the speaker 
knew his subject thoroughly, and of course had had 
practical experience in it. It was a part of his very 
self. 

He also spoke in simple and graphic language : it is 
very. seldom abstract (see p. 231). Throughout, it is 
personal^ and generally speaks of persons as doing or 
saying something; notice especially verse 21. 

Not only did he know his subject and speak in simple 
language (which I have tried to represent on p. 213), but 
he t also knew human nature and the motives which 
influence it, and the nature and the motives of his 
hearers in particular. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF N.T. EXPRESSION 215 

His Ideas were of course all that Ideas should be ; 
but it is not of these that we shall speak here. Here 
we shall speak only of the Expression and Style. 

(1) But observe how the one Idea is emphasised, 
because it is so important. 

(2) The next thing which strikes us is the Clearness 
and Simplicity (see above). 

(3) Then there is the Interesting Beginning. The 
word "Beware" would itself arouse attention, and 
the " Sermon on the Mount " starts with the words 
"Blessed are the poor", which (see p. 258) must have 
forced people to listen. The Ending is Impressive. 

(4) In the first verse (15) we also find a Contrast, or 
Exclusion. Instead of saying directly who the really 
good are, he says who they arc not : they are not those 
who pretend to be God's representatives. ' Contrast ' is 
also seen in verse 17, where the good tree and the 
corrupt tree are opposed to one another. Cp. verse 21, 
and again verse 24 foil., where the house on rock is 
contrasted with the house on sand. 

(5) In these last verses (from 24 to 27) the Balance 
and Parallelism is perfect. Each clause about the 
house on sand corresponds to a clause about the house 
on rock. 

(6) Comparisons and MetapJwrs abound, and they are 
those which the particidar hearers would understand. 
In fact they were chiefly taken from their daily life or 
from the surrounding scenery. The sheep and the wolves, 
the fruit-trees, the grapes and the thorns, the figs and 
the thistles, the cutting down of trees, the building of 
the house upon rock or upon sand, the rain, the flood, 
and the wind — all these were familiar to those who 
were present. The principle was to start with that 



2i 6 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

which was familiar to them, and in the light of this 
to explain that which was less familiar to them. 

(7) The Comparisons involve a good deal of Detail, 
but notice how the details all help to make a picture. 
The Writer or Speaker should never avoid detail and 
concrete instances, so long as they throw light on the 
important aspects of the subject in hand. 

(8) In verse 16 and verse 22, we have the use of 
the Question rather than the Statement : see p. 296. 

(9) In verse 17 and verse 18 we have Repetition, and 
so again in verse 20. Either the Idea is repeated in 
different words, or the very words are repeated. 

(10) In verse 19 and in verse 23, and again in verse 
27, there is an appeal to a Motive, and that Motive 
is fear. It is one of those features of the speaking 
of Jesus which are rather apt to be ignored, but un- 
doubtedly Jesus did appeal to fear among other Motives. 
The general principle, however, is that he constantly 
appealed to some human Motive or other. 

(11) In the whole Section we have the principle of 
Variety well illustrated. There is only one main Idea, 
but' it is repeated again and again, and approached from 
different points of view. 

(12) These are only some of the features of Style. 
Of the Rhythm, the Grammar, and Punctuation, and 
so on, we ^cannot speak here because the Greek original 
is unfamiliar to most readers ; but the Authorised 
Version has a splendid Rhythm and swing throughout 
the New Testament. 

The advantage of taking this New Testament in- 
stance is not only that it illustrates so many of the 
excellencies of Expression and Style, but also that 



CHARACTERISTICS OF N.T. EXPRESSION 217 

it is familiar to the readers ; in fact most of them 
know the Authorised or Revised Version of it by 
heart. Besides this, the Ideas are perfect, and indeed are 
Ideas which everyone ought to know, and Ideas which 
— very few people take the slightest notice of in daily 
life. How many persons judge things by what they 
produce, rather than by the popular opinion and 
judgment about these things? About one person in 
a thousand. 

And another reason why this passage is so good, 
as a lesson in Style, is that, however steadily people 
refuse to carry out in action the Ideas which appear 
here, yet at any rate they profess the greatest respect 
for them. 

Besides being a passage which illustrates very many 
points, and which is familiar, and which is worth study- 
ing for the sake of its Ideas alone, and which is 
respected by the majority of mankind, there is this 
further advantage that near this passage, that is to say, 
in the " Sermon on the Mount " before we come to this 
Ending, there are many more passages which can be 
treated in the same way. 

Last of all, the Verses here are a good instance 
because they were spoken to a popular audience. 
Supposing, for the moment, that the " Sermon on the 
Mount " was spoken all at once, then it most decidedly 
was the greatest sermon that has ever been preached, 
though not by any means the longest. Almost from 
beginning to end it was probably understood even by the 
most stupid people in the crowd. I do not think that 
this applies to the Authorised (or even to the Revised) 
Version, which is not good as a mere rendering of the 
sense of the Greek. How could a 161 1 Version be 



218 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

expected to be so? But the original Greek was most 
extraordinarily simple and easy to ' see through'. 

At the same time the Sermon, and especially this 
Ending, had in it a greal deal that would give the more 
intelligent and educated people food for reflection. It 
is a piece of Composition which must appeal to abso- 
lutely every class of readers and hearers. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. ORIGINALITY. 



FOR the purposes of this Chapter, I shall treat a thing 
as no less Original because it has already been found out 
by someone else : in other words I shall include under 
the word 'Original' whatever the Writer has worked 
out for himself, whatever he has made his very own, 
even if others have thought of it first. I am compelled 
to include here Originality in Ideas as well as in the 
Expression of Ideas : the two departments (cp. p. 202) 
cannot be separated. 

In a still wider sense, I might almost include any- 
thing which a person understands so thoroughly that he 
can describe it clearly to anyone else, and give good 
Comparisons and Contrasts ; about which he can 
answer questions satisfactorily, and of which he has 
a definite picture in his mind's eye. This is not 
Originality, but is very near akin to it. 

The first requisite is that a person should see a tiling 
clearly ; he must not merely be able to say so many 
words, but he must have a clear view of the Idea. 
And this will often mean that he must have thought 
over the Idea, looking at it from every point of view; 
but this does not yet make Originality. 
- Nor has a person quite become Original when he has 
made his own inferences, nor even when he has criticised 
the Idea and formed his judgment of it. There is some- 
thing needed besides, and Originality seems especially 
to be the combining of things in a new way ; for example, 
finding a link between two things which before had 
seemed to be unconnected. 
219 



220 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Originality in the process of Essay -Writing or 
Speaking will come in again and again, if the Essay 
or Speech be prepared according to my method. In 
the Collecting of Ideas, in the Selecting of them, in the 
Underlining, in the Arranging, and in the working 
out and choosing of Comparisons and Contrasts, 
Originality will constantly be needed. For instance, 
the Essay- Writer or Speaker will constantly have to 
appeal to his own judgment (see pp. 167, 170) and to 
say what he thinks best. 

With regard to the Arranging of Ideas, the whole 
treatment of the subject may call for Originality. 
Let me take one example. If we are to consider 
what effects Geography has had upon English History, 
we have to choose between three methods of treat- 
ment : either we can take the divisions of Geography 
(see p. 107), and consider the effects of each, or we 
can consider the History, and see how far it was 
affected by Geography, or, thirdly, we can combine 
these two methods ; and perhaps this would be the 
best way : we might begin by pointing out certain 
features of the Geography (such as the Coast Line, 
the many Rivers, the Variety of Climate and Scenery, 
the Gulf Stream, the Coal Mines, and the Metal 
Mines), and we might estimate the effects of all 
these features, and then we might consider the 
History, and see how far it has been due to these 
and other causes. By this means we should be able to 
repeat the most important Ideas, from different points 
of view. We should ensure Variety. 

Originality is demanded in nearly every branch of 
Expression and Style. To find out the clearest way 
of Expressing something, to find out how to make 



ORIGINALITY 221 

the Expression interesting and (if necessary) emphatic, 
to decide how far there- should be Variety, in fact to 
use your common sense everywhere — all this gives 
ample play for Originality. For you have to perpetually 
appeal to your own ingenuity and your own judg- 
ment, and yet at the same time to remember that 
you are submitting what you do to the judgment of 
others also. 



CHAPTER XL. FORCE AND VIGOUR. 

(See further Chapter XLIX.) 



Few words are commoner, in reference to an Author's 
Style, than these words Force and Vigour. How 
often we read, " His Style is Forcible and Vigorous ", 
or, on the other hand, " His Style is tame and lifeless ". 
And yet no one has adequately described what Force 
and Vigour are, A critic can tell you whether the 
quality is present in a given piece of Writing or in 
a given Speech, or whether it is absent. But exactly 
in what the quality consists he does not say : still less 
does he give practical advice as to how the quality 
can be acquired. It is a most mysterious element 
in Style, and as yet we have not come very much nearer 
to a definition of it than we have to a definition of, 
let us say, life itself. 

Nevertheless there are certain features without which 
Force and Vigour can hardly exist. We cannot say 
that they actually are Force and Vigour, but at any 
rate they are essential to it : they are a sine qua non. 
See the footnote to p. 161. 

First among these comes personal conviction and 
earnestness : the Author or Speaker must have a 
motive, and must be deeply convinced of the truth 
of what he is saying. This does not mean that he 
must speak the truth ; for thousands of people have 
been deeply convinced of the truth of what is in 



FORCE AND VIGOUR 223 

reality absolutely false : it merely means a certain 
object in view, and a conviction as to the Ideas 
being right. 

Now a man can scarcely be convinced about Ideas 
unless he has a clear notion of what these Ideas are ! 
To take an extreme case, if a man did not under- 
stand the meaning of a piece of Hebrew, he could 
scarcely — apart from Translations, etc. — be really in 
earnest about the Ideas in that Hebrew ; and so Force 
and Vigour can hardly be found except where the 
Author clearly understands the Ideas and (see p. 231) 
has a picture of them in his mind's eye. Yet some 
of the most Vigorous Authors have been very far from 
clear in the way they have Expressed their Ideas. A 
few instances will be sufficient. Thucydides, Tacitus, 
Carlyle, and Browning would be four Authors, out of 
many, whose Force and Vigour are indisputable, but 
whose Expression is apt to be very obscure. 

As a rule, however, Vigour is found where the words 
are Clear, Simple, Dignified, and Striking. 

The Concrete Instance is often more 'vigorous' than 
the General Statement : even details and small touches 
(see p. 216) may help to give vigour. Thus contrast — 

'Sailors like their special luxuries' 
with 

'Jack loves his baccy and his grog'. 

Again, how much more forcible than 

' a short moment ' 
is the pictorial touch, 

' the twinkling of an eye '. 

One general feature besides this is that there should 
be no waste of words : Brevity is not always the same 



224 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

as Vigour, but the two generally go hand in hand. 
In fact, Vigorous Style may often omit words which 
seem almost to be necessary, so that, if one put in 
these words, the Vigour w r ould be almost gone. 

Stiggestiveness is an instance of this. Professor 
Barrett Wendell, in his excellent Book on English 
Composition, hints that Force is suggestive : that it 
implies rather than expresses. You feel that there 
is something kept in reserve. The Expression is 
striking, and leaves the reader or hearer to work 
out something for himself. The following quotation 
seemed to me to be an instance of Suggestiveness : I 
do not know how far it will be considered Forcible. 

" Just before going to bed, I do not like to eat lobster 
salad or to read about prisoners in Siberia." 

Force and Vigour nearly always attract the attention 
somehow or other, and striking Comparisons (including 
Metaphors), which appeal to the readers or hearers, 
will often of themselves give Force. One cannot help 
feeling that a little child's remark about the effects of 
influenza, namely, that it made her legs 'giddy', was 
very Forcible : it must appeal to what every individual 
will understand and feel for himself. 

And Vigour will differ according to the class of 
Composition, as well as according to the readers or 
hearers, and according to the Aims of the Writer 
or Speaker. Here, as elsewhere, there is a certain 
Appropriateness. There are certain Sentences which 
would be Vigorous wherever we found them ; there 
are others which are only Vigorous in certain Con- 
texts ; so that there are occasions when Humour may 
be Vigorous, and when nothing else would have 
so much Force as an appeal to the sense of the 



FORCE AND VIGQUR • 225 

ridiculous. Even Bathos itself (see p. 260) may be 
the most Forcible form of Expression under certain 
conditions, e.g. for purposes of ridicule. 

A Sentence or a piece of Writing cannot be properly 
Forcible if all the rest of the Sentences and Paragraphs 
are equally Forcible ; that is to say, when Vigour 
and Force are not necessary (for instance, in a quiet 
description), there they should not be used ; they 
should be reserved for passages where they are really 
needed, or else they will lose their effect, when we 
. come to these passages. As we shall see in the case 
of Emphasis, which is closely related to Vigour, a 
passage is much more emphatic if whatever surrounds 
it is unemphatic (see p. 278). A light shows far more 
clearly when it is surrounded by darkness, and a 
person would never appear so truly Vigorous among 
those who were no less Vigorous than himself, as 
among those who were dying in a hospital or those 
who were dead on a battle-field ; here as elsewhere 
there must be Contrast. • 

Another element is the Rhythm, which will of 
course depend largely upon the lengtJi and the order 
of Words. For the order of Words and the Rhythm, 
as helping to give Force and Vigour, the New 
Testament is far the best study. The reader should 
take some of the most Forcible Sentences, and change 
the Words, and the order of Words, and the Rhythm. 
If he does this, he will often find that the Force and 
Vigour almost completely disappear. 

There is no space here to follow out this very 
important aspect of Vigour, but I hope to follow it 
out in subsequent years ; at present I can only refer 
to the Chapters on the Sentence and on Rhythm. 
Q 



226 HO IV TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

As I said above, Force and Vigour are closely 
related to Emphasis (for which see p. 268). A 
Sentence which is Forcible and Vigorous can scarcely 
fail to be Emphatic also. But the converse is not 
necessarily true, and this is why I have treated 
Emphasis separately. For Emphasis may be obtained 
by means of sheer Repetition, and Repetition may be 
quite as different from Force and Vigour as five tame 
taps with a hammer are different from a single 
energetic tap. Nevertheless, the ultimate effects may 
be very similar ; the stone may be hollowed in much 
the same way by the frequent dropping of water and 
by the sudden blow of the steel. 

It is almost needless to add that Force and Vigour 
are often felt merely because the Emotions are appealed 
to ; and it would not be waste of time to work out a list 
of those Emotions which are (a) more or less common to 
all humanity (e.g. love, indignation and anger), (b) more 
or less common to certain Classes or Groups (e.g., in 
women, pity, and the love of personalities ; in English- 
men, pluck and obstinacy). For some words will be 
Forcible for all mankind, others more especially so for 
a certain Group, for example for those of a certain 
Nation or for those of a certain age. The Emotion 
which is to be excited must be appropriate to the 
subject, to the Aim of the Writer or Speaker, and to 
the reader or hearer as well. 



CHAPTER XLI. CLEARNESS, AND SIMPLICITY. 



' Clearness ' is hard to separate from ' Simplicity ', as 
.Bain should have realised: see p. 177. But the follow- 
ing may be one difference. We saw (on p. 226) that we 
could scarcely have Force and Vigour without Emphasis, 
but that we could have Emphasis without Force and 
Vigour (e.g. by mere Repetition of the words). So, here, 
we can scarcely have true Simplicity without Clearness, 
but we can have Clearness without Simplicity. A clear 
Sentence may be very long and very florid and orna- 
mental : Juvenal is often clear without being simple. 
Possibly the word Precision includes the two ideas. 

The words which one writes should be something 
more than Clear : they should be actually transparent. 
There are occasions when one wishes to express a thing 
somewhat obscurely (as Carlyle did), but they are ex- 
ceptional. As a rule the words should be so clear that 
not only do they have only one meaning, one single mean- 
ing, but that they also show this meaning immediately ; 
the reader or hearer should never have to pause and 
ask himself ' What does this mean ? ' or ' Which Idea 
does this mean ? ' The reader of a certain orator's 
Speeches frequently has to ask himself one of these 
two questions, especially the second. Not unfrequently 
he asks himself yet a third question, ' Does this mean 
anything at all ? ' This is perhaps the severest criticism 
227 



228 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

of a Writer or Speaker which a reader or hearer can 
ever offer. 

The difficulty of being clear is prodigious. What 
a Writer writes, and what a Speaker speaks, may 
may be perfectly clear to himself, but it does not in the 
least follow that it will be clear or even intelligible to 
the audience. I do not doubt for a moment that the. 
following passage was clear to Herbert Spencer when 
he wrote it, but I very much doubt if the ordinary 
reader would understand it, at any rate in less than 
three readings. It is from page 58 of his "Sociology". 
N.B. Herbert Spencer's punctuation is seldom careful. 

"The reader doubtless anticipates the analogy. What Bio- 
"graphy is to Anthropology, History is to Sociology — History, 
" I mean, as commonly conceived. The kind of relation which the 
" sayings and doings that make up the ordinary account of a man's 
"life, bear to an account of his bodily and mental evolution, 
"structural and functional, is like the kind of relation borne 
" by that narrative of a nation's actions and fortunes its historian 
"gives us, to a description of its institutions, regulative and 
" operative, and the ways in which their structures and functions 
" gradually established themselves." 

The more learned a writer is, the more he has read 
and studied and confined himself to, his special subject, 
the less he is able to write on it with transparency, 
that is to say as a general rule. I find that a certain 
Scientist's earlier works were far clearer than his later 
works, which are so full of abstruse Technical Terms 
that the ordinary reader cannot grasp the sense at all. 

Another Quotation will illustrate the obscurity of 
writing which is full of Technical Terms. These 
Technical Terms were quite clear to the writer : in 
fact, he probably could not have expressed his Ideas 



CLEARNESS, AND SIMPLICITY 229 

otherwise, at least without very great effort. But for 
the general reader the Ideas are shrouded in obscurity. 

" In a similar way, in America, the shock of political thought 
"brought about in the interior of each of the thirteen colonies, 
" by the delegation of important prerogatives to a new-fashioned 
"central government, rendered the criticism of that Government, 
"of its functions, and of its rights and duties, as natural as, 
"in other times and circumstances, was the unquestioned sub- 
" mission to the claims of any Government believed to be duly 
" authorised. 

"The origin of a disposition to reject the pretensions of 
"Government to occupy any field of action it chooses, without 
" accountability to any other standard than the apparent demands 
"of the moment, must be sought chiefly in the first of these 
" causes." 

The chief reason why these writers fail to be clear 
is that they have seldom, if ever, practised Clearness 
as a special Exercise. One of the best Exercises is 
the turning of a piece of English into Latin or Greek 
Prose, where Clearness is insisted on : for the Latin or 
Greek must have one transparent meaning, and only 
one. Cases are well known of clergymen and public 
Speakers who, in order to ensure Clearness, have first 
written their thoughts in Latin, and then have translated 
them into English. 

A second cause of Obscurity, in addition to the 
excessive ' learning ' and technicality of the Writer 
or Speaker, would be that he has not his Ideas defi- 
nitely before him in his mind's eye : he has not pictured 
to himself the ' action ' of which he is writing. These 
mental pictures are indispensable. How far they differ 
from the Abstract phrases with which Books and 
Reviews are crowded can be judged from the follow- 
ing two passages, put side by side. 



230 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

" The quantitative value " It seems to be true 

" of animated life, as a geo- that, the smaller the ani- 

" logical agency, seems to mals are in bulk, the more 

"be inversely as the volume effect they have on the 

" of the individual organism" 'Geology' of a country, 

(Marsh, "The Earth as because of their greater 

Modified by Human Ac- numbers." 
tion", p. 78). 

Another cause is excessive Brevity ; it is partly this 
which makes Tacitus so hard to understand. 

Another great error is the wrong Order of the 
Words ; instances are given on p. 325. The Arrange- 
ment of Words in Sentences is very little studied in 
Schools. Professor Meiklejohn gives excellent in- 
stances of mistakes of this kind. Two instances may 
be sufficient here : I found them in a Novel. 

" He returned home with the ring which had caused 
him such trouble in his waistcoat pocket." 

Had the order of words been changed, or had the 
Author said 

"When he returned home, he had in his waistcoat 
pocket the ring which had caused him such trouble," 

his meaning would have been perfectly clear. 

The second is " She announced her engagement to 
Mr. Brown." 

It must be borne in mind that very often the Writer 
or Speaker himself will be unable to see that what he 
has written is anything else but perfect. Perhaps he 
himself knows what he means, but he cannot put 
himself in the position of anyone else who does not 
yet know this. 



CLEARNESS, AND SIMPLICITY 231 

Another common cause of obscurity is that the 
wrong Word has been chosen. This is too obvious to 
need illustration here. 

As helps towards Clearness, the following suggestions 
may be found of use. 

First of all, the reader or hearer lias to be considered, 
rather than the Writer or Speaker. The latter should 
say to himself, " I want the average reader or hearer, 
or one who is below the average, to see this Idea as 
clearly as / see it." Now, in order to attain this Clear- 
ness, the Writer or Speaker must himself see the Idea 
with unusual plainness and definiteness : he must have 
a very definite picture in his mind's eye. Strange as it 
may sound, the habit of drawing pictures will do much 
towards making the Expression of Ideas unmistakable. 
This is not merely an allusion to pictures of people, but 
also to Diagrams and Plans of every kind. 

But a still better means is to turn whole passages of 
abstract writers (like Herbert Spencer) into simple 
English, which should as a rule answer such questions 
as " Who does what?" Sometimes other questions 
must be answered, such as " When ? Why ? How ? 
etc." In other words, as a rule, persons should be 
imagined as acting or speaking or thinking, etc. ; this 
is one of the secrets of good Latin and Greek Prose 
Compositions : they are fond of describing someone as 
doing something. 

This does not mean that all Writing or Speaking 
should describe someone as doing something, for this 
need not be the ultimate and actual form of Expression ; 
but until, you have a clear picture in your eye, you 
cannot be quite sure that the Expression or Style will 
be clear. When once you have imagined a picture of 



232 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

* someone doing something ', then your description of 
that idea is almost bound to be Clear. 

So important is this Clearness, that I will suggest 
to the reader to try to turn the following passage 
into such English as shall describe someone as doing 
something. 

It is from Gibbon's " Decline and Fall of the Roman 
Empire" (p. 352 of Vol. I., Bury's Edition). 

" The first considerable action of his reign seemed to evince 
"his sincerity as well as his moderation. After the example of 
" Marcus, he gave himself a colleague in the person of Maximian, 
" on whom he bestowed at first the title of Caesar, ^.nd afterwards 
" that of Augustus. But the motives of his conduct, as well as 
" the object of his choice, were of a very different nature from 
"those of his admired predecessor. By investing a luxurious 
"youth with the honours of the purple, Marcus had discharged 
" a debt of private gratitude, at the expense, indeed, of the happi- 
"ness of the state. By associating a friend and a fellow-soldier 
" to the labours of government, Diocletian, in the time of public 
"danger, provided for the defence both of the East and of the 
" West. Maximian was born a peasant, and, like Aurelian, in the 
" territory of Sirmium. Ignorant of letters, careless of laws, the 
"rusticity of his appearance and manners still betrayed in the 
" most elevated fortune the meanness of his extraction. War was 
"the only art he professed. In a long course of service he had 
"distinguished himself on every frontier of the empire; and, 
" though his military talents were formed to obey rather than to 
"command, though, perhaps, he had never attained the skill of 
" a consummate general, he was capable, by his valour, constancy, 
"and experience, of executing the most arduous undertakings. 
"Nor were the vices of Maximian less useful to his benefactor. 
" Insensible to pity, and fearless of consequences, he was the 
"ready instrument of every act of cruelty which the policy of that 
"artful prince might at once suggest and disclaim." 

It may be as well to take this piece and to write 
a short abstract of it, first putting down the Ideas as 
briefly as possible, and in as business-like a form as 



CLEARNESS, AND SIMPLICITY 233 

possible. After this has been done ; the Paraphrasing 
may run somewhat as follows : — 

By that which he first did, when he had become Emperor, he 
showed himself not only able to control himself but also really 
desirous of helping his country. For, after the example of Marcus, 
lie chose for himself as his colleague Maximian . . . but he and 
Marcus chose very different men, for very different reasons. 
Marcus, in order that he might pay back a debt to a private 
individual, chose a luxurious youth as a sharer in the glory 
of reigning. Diocletian, in order that he might protect both the 
Eastern and Western frontiers of the Empire, chose a fellow- 
soldier as a sharer in the labours of governing. Maximian was 
of rustic birth and, like Aurelian himself, born in the Sirmian 
territory. Ignorant of letters, careless of laws, by his rustic 
appearance and behaviour he showed of what birth he was, even 
when he had reached the highest position in the State. In war 
alone he excelled : for through many campaigns on all the frontiers 
of the Empire he had shown himself an excellent soldier ; and 
though as a soldier he was more suited for obeying than for com- 
manding, and though he never shone as a very great general, yet 
by his valour, constancy, and experience, he was able to do the 
most difficult things. 

Nor did he benefit Diocletian by his vices less than by these 
virtues. Being without pity, and without care for that which 
would result from whatever he did, he readily carried out every 
cruel act which Diocletian, a man of great cunning, first of all had 
ordered to be done and then, when it had been done, repudiated. 

Let the reader compare his paraphrase with this, and 
let him try to find whether his paraphrase or the above 
is nearer to the real meaning of the ' Gibbon '. 

This piece is often set for Latin Prose, and three- 
quarters of its difficulty lies in the fact that it is very 
obscure: when once the real meaning has been mastered, 
and the personal form of ' someone doing something ' 
ha's been found, then the greater part of the work is 
over. 



234 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

There have been those who have spent hours and 
hours in making sure that their Style was Clear: they 
would not let their Composition 'pass' until they were 
quite satisfied that it would be thoroughly understood by 
the reader or hearer, and that it would mean to the 
reader exactly what it meant to them themselves. One writer 
used to read out much of his work to his servant ; for 
he rightly supposed that, if his servant understood what 
he wrote, then people of greater intelligence and higher 
education would also be certain to understand it. 

Another great aid towards Clearness, besides this 
inviting of the candid opinion of as many others as 
possible, is to take one's Composition and look at it 
again after an interval, and then to criticise it (see p. 335) 
as if it were the work of one's deadliest enemy. 

Yet another help would be to take good Writers, and 
from them to select the Clearest passages, and then to 
Analyse these passages (see p. 213), and thus to find out 
exactly what it is that makes them clear. 

A few other hints are suggested here. 

If your passage should still seem imperfect, if you 
should have the slightest shadow of doubt about its 
Clearness, then it may be safer either to alter it, or 
to express the Idea in a second zuay, to repeat it, putting it 
perhaps, the second time, in the abstract form as 
opposed to the first time in the personal form (of 
' someone doing something '), or using some Comparison 
or Metaphor which might make the meaning absolutely 
unmistakable, or some Contrast which might bring out 
just exactly the shade of sense which you wish to 
convey (see p. 291) ; it might be as well to express 
what it is that you do not mean. Perhaps after all this 
may be one of the best Exercises. 






CLEARNESS, AND SIMPLICITY 235 

As another help (which, however, is a dangerous 
help), I should suggest Exaggeration; it is this which 
makes Proverbs so Clear ; three-quarters or nine-tenths 
of the Proverbs which we hear are Clear because (p. 152) 
they are gross Exaggerations ; and those who are wont 
to address the uneducated, very frequently sacrifice truth 
and accuracy for the sake of Clearness : they fear that, 
unless they exaggerate, they will not be understood. 

But, when your general statement is not quite Clear, 
a safer method is to think of a single Instance of the 
general principle : that is to say, to start with the 
Instance, and from that to pass on to the general 
statement ; this will be a wonderful help. 

To what I have said above, certain Objections may be 
made. It may be said that the abstract expression 
is often necessary, and also has the advantage of short- 
ness, whereas the personal expression (of ' someone 
doing something') is apt to fix the attention on personal 
details which are unimportant. In answer to this, I 
should say that the Concrete and personal must come 
first in the mind ; afterwards, if it be thought advisable, 
the abstract and general Expression may be preferred, 
or may be given as well as the personal expression ; 
but. until the personal form has been found out, few 
Writers or Speakers can be certain that their meaning 
will be clear to the ordinary reader or hearer. 

Secondly, it may be said that the Concrete and 
personal expression is often bald ; but no reader of the 
New Testament could assert that this is necessarily 
the case, although, almost throughout, the language is 
p&rsonal, and describes 'someone as doing something'. 
Much will depend on the Order of words, on the 
Number of words, and on the Rhythm. Much more 



236 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

will depend on this than on the actual ' Concrete- 
ness'; and anyhow baldness is generally better than 
Obscurity. 

As to the advantages of Clearness I need say very 
little. 

To be certain that you are not misleading your 
readers or hearers is in itself a very important con- 
sideration. It is true that you may be expressing an 
Idea in a way which will not please the most educated 
Public, but at any rate you are on the safe side, because 
you are appealing to a much larger Public, and, provided 
that you practise Clearness as a special Exercise, there 
is no reason why your Composition should not appeal 
to the educated quite as much as to the uneducated. 
At first, of course, it will not do so : the striving after 
Clearness will have its drawback. 

Those advisers who say to the beginner, "If you wish 
to be Clear, be perfectly natural", are absolutely wrong : 
for imagine anyone having given that advice even to the 
learned genius Herbert Spencer (p. 228). He would pro- 
bably say, "Throughout my works I have been perfectly 
natural". I imagine that he wrote down just what it was 
natural for him to write down : there seems to be no 
conscious effort after Clearness ! But, in his case, the 
result was something very far from Clearness : it was 
often a baffling obscurity. The fallacy that what is 
'natural' to everyone must therefore also be best for 
everyone should have been exploded by the history 
of past ages. 

Another advantage of Clearness is that it is un- 
doubtedly a very great help, not only in persuading 
others, but also in impressing things on one's own 
mind. It is a commonplace that a person remembers 



CLEARNESS, AND SIMPLICITY 237 

things better when he has understood them, and that 
he can hardly understand them properly unless they 
have been clearly expressed. Therefore Clearness will 
help the memory. 

Lastly, it will encourage what every one needs, 
namely self-criticism. People need to criticise their 
own work as well as the work of others, and every 
attempt to make one's Writings or Speeches clear will 
be an Exercise in self-criticism and self- correction. 
The moral effect will therefore be very considerable. 



CHAPTER XLII. BREVITY AND ECONOMY. 



ECONOMY in Essay-Writing and Speaking is well 
worthy of consideration : not only must we try to 
economise space, but we must also try to economise 
time, and energy. 

We must economise space, not by Writing as much 
as possible on a single page, for this is utterly False 
Economy, but by cutting off as much as possible, 
whether we have to cut off unnecessary or inappro- 
priate Ideas, or unnecessary Sentences or Words. 

Time is not truly saved by one who writes an Essay 
or makes a Speech immediately he knows what the 
subject is, for that again is False Economy of time ; 
he will save time more truly by practising each part 
of Essay- Writing or Speaking correctly by itself, so 
that the saving may be not in the immediate and tran- 
sitory present but in the longer future. 

Energy again is not truly saved when the work is 
done slackly or in a slipshod way or in an unscientific 
way : for that again is False Economy. Strange as 
it may seem, we can best save energy in the end by 
using the greatest amount of it in due season ; only 
we must concentrate it upon the right things, and we 
must do these things in the right way. 

In fact, we may use up a great deal of space and 
a great deal of paper, we may use up a great deal 
of time, and we may use up a great deal of 
238 



BREVITY AND ECONOMY 239 

energy, in preparing an Essay or Speech according 
to my method, and in practising each part of my 
method by itself. And yet in the end there may 
be a wonderful Economy. The Essay which we shall 
write or the Speech that we shall make, in a year's 
time after such practice, will be far better in every 
way, and, besides this, it will be done with less expen- 
diture of paper, of time, and of Energy ; so that we 
are as it were spending a few pounds to-day that we 
may save many hundreds of pounds a few years later- 
In the struggle between Rome and Carthage, Carthage 
refused to invest a comparatively small sum of money 
in ships of war : the result was that a few years 
later she was defeated and had to pay thousands of 
talents. History presents many such instances of 
False Economy. 

The Law of Economy applies to the whole of the 
Essay, and to its different parts, the Paragraphs, the 
Sentences, the Clauses, and the Words. But one point 
has to be emphasised and never to be forgotten. For 
the sake of Brevity we must never sacrifice Clearness, 
Interest, Proportion of Emphasis, or Variety. These 
are four Laws that may contend against the Law of 
Brevity. 

The Law of Propoi'tion we have already noticed : 
according to it, the more important the Idea is, the 
longer the Paragraph should be, that is to say as a 
rough-and-ready rule. If we have an Idea which is 
important, and express it very briefly instead of in a 
longer Paragraph, then we may be securing Brevity 
but sacrificing the proper Emphasis : the important 
Idea will not have its proper prominence and bulk. 
But, on the other hand, occasionally a very short 



?4o HO W TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Paragraph may be a sign of Emphasis (see p. 312): 
this, however, is the exception. 

It is a safe general rule that the Essay or Speech 
should be short, that most of its Paragraphs should 
be short, that most of its Sentences should be short ; 
and even the Words should as a rule be short. Except 
in the case of the last three, where, e.g., Variety and 
Emphasis are to be aimed at, it is especially important 
to notice this need for Brevity to-day : for the tendency 
is for everything to grow shorter and shorter, at any 
rate in our country and in America. It cannot be 
regarded as a healthy sign that the great mass of 
people object to long Books, long Articles, long 
Chapters, long Speeches, long Paragraphs, long Sen- 
tences, and long Words. Nevertheless it is a sign 
of the times, at least in our country, and as such it 
must be taken into account ; for, as we have seen, 
the Law of Appropriateness tells us to make our 
Essay, etc., Appropriate not only to our Aim but also 
to our readers or hearers. 

As a help towards Brevity and Economy, you might, 
after you have finished the Essay, etc., analyse it into 
Headings, re-arrange these Headings, and re-write the 
Essay, etc., again ; count the number of words in the 
old Essay and in the new. Of course this should be 
after an interval, and it is a process that can be applied 
with equal effect, or perhaps with even better effect and 
certainly with more pleasure, to the work of someone 
else : take some Writer who is particularly verbose, and 
treat some of his Writings thus. 

While recently editing a German work (especially for 
the athletic public) I was surprised at the number of 
words to which the ponderous and inflated Sentences 



BREVITY AND ECONOMY 241 

of the original had to be reduced before they could be 
clear : the German work was a vast mass of Abstract 
and impersonal statements. After turning the Abstract 
into the Concrete and Personal (see p. 233), I found that 
the language became not only clearer but also far 
shorter. 

But of all the helps few can be compared with the 
careful preparation of the Headings and Stib-Headings 
themselves. You can prove this in the following way. 
Do any Essay on any subject just exactly as most 
people do it, that is to say, straight away : begin 
Writing the moment you get the subject, and the 
moment you have finished Writing consider the Essay 
as done. Then take this same Essay and work it out 
by Headings and Sub-Headings, using the General 
Lists as far as possible ; Collect, Select, Underline, and 
Arrange these Headings and Sub-Headings, clearly 
understanding each of them (for instance, by forming 
pictures in the mind, see p. 231); then Express them in 
simple language. 

Now compare your former Essay with your present 
Essay. It is quite possible that you will find your 
present Essay is no longer than the first, and yet 
contains twice or three times as many Ideas. It will 
probably be twice as well Arranged, and much better 
Expressed. 

Above all, do not think that the number of words is 
of any great importance. I remember one pupil telling 
me that he was afraid that he would fail in his Essay- 
Paper in an Exam., because he did not feel that he 
could write more than fifteen pages on any subject. 
I told him that if he did a good Essay of five pages it 
would be much better than a bad Essay of twenty 

R 



242 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

pages, and would certainly please the Examiner far 
more; but he did not seem to believe, me. After the 
Examination he told me that he had only done 
thirteen pages : there were probably at least eight 
pages too many. 

Yet there is a certain importance attaching to the 
number of words, especially in Articles for Reviews 
and Magazines. It has often seemed to me a very 
iniquitous thing that the Editor of a Magazine or 
Review should fix a definite number of words for an 
Article (for instance, three thousand) quite apart from 
what the subject is and how important or unimportant 
it is. But still it is customary, and therefore to be 
taken into consideration. 

Among other helps to Brevity and Economy, notice such 
Rhetorical Devices as 

' honest rags ' ; 

' a cheap market '. And see p. 299 foil. 

These are often helps to Vigour and Emphasis as well. 



CHAPTER XLIII. APPROPRIATENESS, OR 

ADAPTATION; AND UNITY. 



THE Composition must be Adapted to the readers 
or hearers, and to the subject, and even to the different 
parts of the same subject : for instance, there will not 
be the same Style for graphic description, for quiet 
proof, and for indignant refutation. Professor Barrett 
Wendell's remarks on the subject are admirable. 

Adaptation in its widest sense would mean that one 
must Select one's Ideas according to the readers or 
hearers, and according to one's Aims. Thus, if one 
is Writing or Speaking to a popular audience, then 
there would be very few Ideas. 

In the same way, the Arrangement of Ideas must be 
carefully Adapted to the readers or hearers, to the 
Aim, and to the Subject. In a popular subject, the 
Arrangement might as a rule be that which is given on 
pp. 178, 216, which might be absolutely out of place if 
one were addressing a number of Specialists. 

In this Chapter, however, I only wish to speak of the 
Adapting of the Expression and the Style, quite apart 
from the Adapting of the Ideas. 

A friend of mine once pointed out a truth very clearly, 
in a railway carriage. Pointing to the dust on the 
window-ledge and floor, he said "Dirt is very bad in 
here, but out there in the farms it is just what is 
wanted ". So. although we might condemn dirt for 
243 



244 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

general occasions, still we must realise there are 
occasions when it is in place. There are occasions 
when an Idea or a Style, which is excluded from most 
Compositions, e.g. because it is too learned or too 
'special', must be adopted: it is appropriate just here, 
under just these conditions. 

It is a fallacy, then, to suppose that the ordinary 
' Laws ' in Composition are Universal Laws. 

One might think at first that it was a Universal Law 
that all Writing or Speaking should be so clear as to 
be transparent. And yet, as we have seen, no reader 
of Carlyle can doubt that a great deal of his Force 
would be gone if one made his Writings transparent. 
If one took some of Carlyle's most typical works and 
paraphrased them in simple English, the effect would 
not be a quarter as good as it is. 

Once again, one might think that Economy was a 
Universal Law : that it was right always to cut out 
every word that could be cut out. Treatises on Essay- 
Writing or Speaking usually emphasise this point ; 
and as a general rule the advice is good. But there are 
occasions when Repetition is needed, and when the 
number of extra words really adds to the effect, which 
effect could not well be produced without them. 

And once again, Professor Freeman was never tired 
of telling people to use Anglo-Saxon words. He drags 
in this piece of advice into all his Books, in season and 
out of season. And other Authorities also advise 
people to use short Sentences. And yet undoubtedly 
there are subjects or parts of subjects where Anglo- 
Saxon words are not so good as the (often longer) 
Latin words (see p. 305), and where short Sentences 
(see p. 319) are not so good as long Periods. 



APPROPRIATENESS OR ADAPTATION 245 

I will give two more instances to show how Laws, 
which seem to be Universal, are as a matter of fact 
subject to the higher Law, the Law of Appropriateness 
or Adaptation. 

A smooth Rhythm is recommended, and for ordinary 
purposes it is best. But for the description of a piece 
of rugged scenery it might be quite out of place. 

Many teachers say that slang and vulgar expressions 
are always out of place in any and every sort of 
Composition. But readers of Sir Walter Scott must 
feel that he has violated the Law of Appropriateness 
when he makes the common gardener or workman 
or child speak in beautiful and cultivated and high- 
flown language, showing no distinction between this 
Style and the Style of the most learned Professors. 
It is a great blot on his work. 

The Law of Appropriateness and Adaptation will 
therefore be one of the most widely applicable Laws 
in all Composition. And let me repeat that it means 
to adapt oneself, one's Ideas, and one's Style, to the 
subject, or part of a subject, and to the reader or 
hearer, according to what one's Aims may be. 

Let us therefore consider the above remarks more 
carefully. 

The Law of Adaptation will override the Law of 
Clearness, when the expression which is not Clear will 
nevertheless be more Forcible and striking, and will 
make people think because it attracts their attention 
and interests them and (see p. 258) makes them rebel : 
a perfectly Clear statement will not always do this. 

The Law of Adaptation will, as we have seen, over- 
ride the Law of Brevity and Economy, when we wish 
to repeat an Idea, or to introduce Comparisons or 



246 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Contrasts, and perhaps to produce Balance and Rhythm. 
Sometimes, in fact, the Law of Clearness or the Law of 
Emphasis may be far more important than the Law of 
Brevity or Economy. As in feeding, so in Writing 
and Speaking, it is a mistake to condense always. 
Occasionally there must be something which does not 
actually nourish, but gives the Food what we may call 
material, bulk, or size. 

The rule that we should prefer Anglo-Saxon words is 
an excellent one ; only, in Philosophical and Scientific 
Writings and Speeches addressed to none but Specialists, 
the Latin words may be not merely a saving of time 
and trouble, but they may also express the meaning 
far more clearly and accurately. 

The rule of Short Sentences may be broken by the 
Law of Variety, the Law of Balance, and the particular 
kind of Style which is fitted for the purpose. If the 
purpose be to reason quite calmly, or give a quiet 
narrative or description, then a long Sentence or a 
Period may be found more Appropriate. 

The important Laws, then, are only general Laws for 
ordinary purposes, for we have seen that there are 
occasions when slang, or harsh Metres, are strictly 
Appropriate, and therefore indispensable. 

When we ask what is Appropriate, we find it easier 
(as is so often the case) to explain by means of a 
Contrast (see p. 291). In an American Novel we find the 
words " Hast discovered yon traitor ? " " Yes ", said he. 
" Then ", quoth his comrade, " hurry up ". Here the 
Inappropriateness of the "hurry up", or, rather, the 
Inappropriateness of any word like "hast" or "yon", 
is very obvious. I should say that the Inappropriate- 
ness was not in the "hurry up" but in the "hast" and 



APPROPRIATENESS OR ADAPTATION 247 

the " yon ", which are out of place in a Detective-story 
of modern times. The opposite to Appropriateness 
will therefore sometimes be Bathos. See p. 260. 

N.B. — -This Ending ("See p. 260") is probably itself 
inappropriate, as an Ending to a Paragraph ! 

Rhetorical Devices, such as Questions, are very well 
when they are in their proper place, but they certainly 
have their proper place and are to be avoided elsewhere. 
Some American Novelists, again, are very fond of intro- 
ducing them on every possible occasion, using them so 
often (even in simple quiet descriptions) that, when they 
come to a place where they need something 'Rhe- 
torical ', they find they have exhausted all their devices 
already. Like the man who got into the habit of 
swearing without provocation, when the provocation 
actually comes they have no further weapon to employ. 

The general principle then will be, not to use these 
various devices unless they are really wanted, really 
Appropriate. It will take a long while to learn where 
they are, or are not, really Appropriate. 

The word ' Adaptation ' will apply to the length or 
shortness of Paragraphs. These should vary in size 
partly according to the importance of the subject, 
partly according to the Law of Balance, and partly 
according to the Law of Variety ; but, on the whole, 
the shorter are clearer and pleasanter than the longer 
Paragraphs. And the probability is that Paragraphs 
will become shorter and shorter : there has certainly 
been a tendency in this direction for some time past. 
A very good piece of advice, however, is to summarise 
a long Paragraph by a short Sentence at the end of it ; 
by this means the advantages of a long Paragraph 
(which are considerable) need not ■ be ■ sacrificed. For 



248 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

it is a very great mistake to suppose that short Para- 
graphs should be used throughout Writing or Speaking : 
a long Paragraph is one of the best means of calling 
attention to the importance of an Idea. Though, once 
again, Writing and Speaking, and different classes of 
Writing and Speaking, have different Laws. 

The length of Sentences also must vary, but here 
also the shorter are safer than the longer Sentences, 
especially when they have to be Spoken and then 
heard, rather than Written and then read. The shorter 
Sentences are of course better for a quick narrative, 
e.g. telling of rapid action, and for passionate reasoning, 
but the longer Sentences are almost demanded by 
certain slower and quieter descriptions, and by calm 
arguments : in fact, if there were not long Sentences, 
the short Sentences would cease to have their full 
effect ; that is to say, you could no longer denote ex- 
citing actions by means of short Sentences if you were 
constantly using the same short Sentences for a quiet 
description of scenery. 

As to the Vocabulary, that also should be carefully 
Adapted. There has been a tendency, in the Novels 
and Stories of late years, to Adapt the Vocabulary 
to the character, that is to say, not to make all the 
characters speak in exactly the same Style, generally 
the best Style that the Author can write. Poetic 
Vocabularies may be right for certain kinds of descrip- 
tion, and for pathetic passages. A simple Vocabulary, 
especially of Anglo-Saxon words, would be best for 
ordinary Narratives, and for every branch of literature 
if the readers or hearers (or any of them) are un- 
educated. If Technical language must be used, it 
should nearly always be preceded by untechnical 



APPROPRIATENESS OR ADAPTATION 249 

language, that is to say, the explanation and meaning 
should come first, and the Technical word may then 
come afterwards. But, for a learned audience, Tech- 
nical language and ponderous Words are often the 
very best. It is quite possible that in a single piece 
of Composition several different kinds of Vocabularies 
will have to be used ; and indeed, for the sake of 
Repetition, Emphasis, and Clearness, simple language 
and Technical language are often to be combined and 
used side by side. 

On page 284 we note that Comparisons must be very 
carefully Adapted to the readers or hearers and their 
surroundings : the choice of Comparisons will also 
depend a good deal on how hard the subject is for 
the readers or hearers to understand, and how im- 
portant the point is. A Comparison or Metaphor may 
be excellent in itself, but, when introduced where the 
Idea would be quite clear without it, and where the 
Idea is not important, will be a violation of the Law 
of Appropriateness. There are occasions, however (e.g. 
see p. 215), where two Comparisons (or even three) will 
be Appropriate. 

Almost exactly the same may be noted of Contrasts. 

With regard to Rhythm we have already said a good 
deal. We have seen how a dignified piece of Composi- 
tion will have long Sentences and long Words, whereas 
a rapid and passionate piece will have shorter Sentences 
and shorter Words. In a quiet and ordinary piece, the 
Sentences and Words may be of average length. 

In conclusion, it will be seen that the Law of Adapta- 
tion or Appropriateness must run through the whole 
world of Composition, and that it is a Law that needs 
very careful attention and study : it forces the Writer 



250 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

to think not only of his subject, from very many points 
of view, but also of his aims and objects, and of his 
readers or hearers and their conditions of ' mind, 
body, and estate'. It is so general a Law that a great 
deal which one says about it is bound to be vague. If 
one says to a cricketer, ' Adapt your batting to the 
bowler, to the ground, to the state of the game, etc.', or 
1 Adapt your bowling to the batsman, etc,,' the advice is 
none the less sound because it is general. 

In a small Book like this, I cannot possibly exhaust 
all the ways in which the Law must be applied. In 
the above pages I have only pointed out one or two 
of the applications. 

For a good discussion of Unity, I may refer the 
reader to Barrett Wendell's " English Composition '"'. 
Besides what I have just said about Adaptation, one 
or two remarks may be added about Unity. 

A compact Period may give a good impression of 
Unity, by gathering together, between its beginning 
and its end, a number of subordinate sentences or 
thoughts : the mere sight and sound of the Period 
can help to give compactness and to weld the whole 
together. 

If, however, a number of Independent Sentences or 
Clauses are used, then how is Unity to be kept? How 
can we weld ? And the same problem occurs if we 
have had to digress. A single Sentence at the end of 
the Paragraph, gathering up the thoughts in a Resumee 
(p. 247) — this may be one of the best solutions. 



CHAPTER XLIV. VARIETY. 



If the passage from the New Testament, on p. 212, 
be very carefully studied, it will be found an admirable 
instance of Variety. We noticed in it one single Idea 
expressed in many ways and by many means : we 
noticed in it Repetition for the sake of Clearness and 
Emphasis ; we noticed Comparisons, Contrasts, and 
Details ; we might have noticed a certain approach to 
Humour ; we noticed also Balance and Rhythm. It has 
a changing Rhythm, which may not be so remarkable in 
the Greek as in the English. We noticed also the Ques- 
tion, and many other features as well ; and all these in 
spite of the fact that there was only one Idea, namely, 
that the really good are those who are good in their 
inmost selves and at their foundations. 

There is Variety also in the length of the Words and 
Sentences, and, if we study the Sermon on the Mount 
as a whole, we shall find Variety in the length of the 
Paragraphs. 

In this instance we found the great Variety used for 
one purpose in particular, namely, for Emphasis ; but 
it will be seen that the Variety serves two other purposes 
as well : it makes the Idea Clear to the audience, and 
also Interesting and Suggestive. 

The Law of Variety is, like most Laws, subject to 
the Law of Appropriateness or Adaptation : to take 
251 



252 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

any unimportant Idea and to repeat it in all the above 
ways, by mere Repetition, by changing the Construc- 
tion, by different Comparisons and Contrasts, and by 
Questions, would be an instance of Variety which 
would be wrong, because it would not be Appropriate. 
Somewhat similarly we see that certain pictures make 
a great mistake in giving the details of a thing which 
should by rights be represented very vaguely, so as 
not to attract the attention at all. And this too holds 
good even though the Variety in this case may be 
quite Interesting to the audience : that is to say, it 
is not enough excuse for altering and changing to say 
that you are interesting your audience ; it is not only 
the audience that is to be considered but also the 
relative importance of the Ideas themselves. 

Especially deserving of study is Grammatical Variety. 
It is a good Exercise to express certain Ideas in as 
many ways as possible. To every reader of Grammar, 
such terms as Sentence, Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, 
and Number, are familiar ; but they probably have for 
him very little meaning or use. We know more or less 
what these terms mean, but we cannot employ our know- 
ledge. Now if the matter be carefully studied, and if 
we express a thing in many different ways, then we 
shall find that all these words are valuable. 

Let us take an instance first. A Sentence may be 
a Statement or a Denial, or a Question (and there are 
many kinds of Questions), or an Exhortation or Wish, 
or, lastly, an Exclamation. All these are Varieties of 
the Sentence, and there are certain Ideas which can be 
expressed in at least five different ways, namely, as a 
Statement or a Denial, a Question, an Exhortation, and 
an Exclamation. I suggest one example here. 



VARIETY 253 

1. You ought to go ; it is your duty to go ; 

2. You ought not to stop ; 

3. Why do you stop ? Why do you not go ? Why 
have you not gone ? Ought you not to go ? 

4. Go ; I wish you would go ; I pray that you may 
go; 

5. How foolish (etc.) of you to stop ! 

This has already included certain changes of Mood 
and Tense, but still more Variety can be introduced : 
the Moods can be varied, and yet the Idea can remain 
practically the same. 

And so also of the Tenses: a general truth can be 
expressed in three different ways. 'Ice is slippery', 
would be a general statement. ' Ice always has been 
slippery', would be a 'Perfect'. 'Ice (always) will be 
slippery ', is Future. It is noticeable that the strictly Pre- 
sent Tense, i.e. where you put in the word ' now ', or say 
' Ice is being slippery', does not give this general sense. 

Varieties of Voice are worth practising for certain 
purposes : it does not make much difference whether 
we say ' It has been done by him ', or ' He has done it ' ; 
for Passives can generally be turned into Actives, except 
e.g. the housemaid's ' It has been broken ' ! Practice in 
this Variety of Voice is useful, because one often wishes 
to avoid changing the Subject of the Sentence if one 
can help it. 

Changes in Person and Number are not always possible, 
except in general statements, and, besides this, it is a 
pity to change the Subject of the Sentence unneces- 
sarily, as in ' Jack had come home, but when his father 
had died [better — when he had lost his father] he went 
away again '. 



254 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

For an example of an unnecessary change of Words 
and Construction, I may refer to the Instance on page 32 5. 
It will be seen there that the word 'requisite', which 
is used in the first part, is changed to 'necessary' in 
the second part; the Number, which is Singular in the 
word 'the man', is unnecessarily changed to Plural in 
the word 'boys'; all such changes are to be avoided. 
They were dear to Gibbon, and they helped to make 
his Style so exasperating to many of his readers. 

A particular branch of such unnecessary Variety is 
where an Author calls a person first by his proper 
name, for instance, Tiberius, then by some other term 
such as 'the luxurious despot', then by another term 
such as 'the foreshadower of Nero', then by yet 
another, such as 'the gloomy and discontented 
monarch'. The general rule would be not to use 
any such descriptions unless they add something to 
the sense, or help to explain the particular scene, etc. 
After a Member of Parliament had been mentioned, 
he was referred to as 'an indulgent parent'. Now, if 
he had just passed over some fault of his son, then 
'indulgent parent' would be all right, but, if he only (let 
us say) had had a cup of tea, then ' indulgent parent' 
would be out of place. It is much better to allude to 
a person by his name or by Pronouns (e.g. 'he'). 
Sidgwick aptly calls this allusion to a person by dif- 
ferent terms the Ornate Alias ; it is a phrase worth 
remembering. Latin Prose Composition is one of 
the best helps towards the avoiding of it. 

Confusion of Metaphors, etc., is another form of bad 
Variety : the historic instances are, ' It was a mere flea- 
bite in the ocean ', and ' I smell a rat : I see it in the 
air : but I '11 nip it in the bud '. 



CHAPTER XLV. INTEREST. 



A Writer or Speaker often makes a very great mis- 
take in writing or saying things which are Interesting 
to himself, without first considering whether they are 
Interesting to the reader or hearer also, or even to 
the reader or hearer only. And, when one advises 
a. Writer or Speaker to keep up the Interest during 
his Writings, one means the Interest of the reader 
or hearer, and not merely his own. 

Interest is especially necessary at the Beginning of a 
Composition, for we know how often people choose 
Books and Stories simple by their beginning. The art 
of beginning in an Interesting way should therefore be 
very carefully studied (see p. 258) ; and not only should 
the beginning of the whole Composition be Interesting, 
but also the beginning of each Section and Chapter and 
Paragraph. It is obvious that the Writer or Speaker 
cannot ensure this Interest unless he has sympathy with 
his readers or hearers, and adapts himself to their 
point of view. 

There are some things which are of Interest to 
almost everybody : thus, if you can appeal to the 
reader's Emotions (e.g. his pity, his indignation, or 
his fear), or if you can point out the advantage of the 
readers or hearers, or how they may help others in 
some way, or if you can criticise a fault, or if you can 
give a telling Comparison (p. 281), especially one which 
appeals to the eye, and with which he is familiar, or if 
255 



256 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

you can give him a Contrast (p. 291), you will probably 
succeed in getting his attention. And, to some, even a 
mere Repetition may be Interesting, if it is carefully 
managed ; but one essential in securing Interest is to 
secure Variety, not so much in the subject (see p. 213) 
as in the way of treating it. 

The reader will also probably be Interested if he 
is able to apply what you suggest to other subjects as 
well, and if he is able to carry out original research; 
so that it may be often a good thing not to let the 
Composition be merely the giving of information, but 
to let it suggest something for the reader or hearer to 
work out for himself. 

A step further is when the Author (by Questions and 
other means, see p. 296) asks the reader or hearer for 
information, as it were, and seems to draw the answer 
from him, so that it appears that the reader or hearer 
is really finding out everything for himself, and even 
teaching the Author. In Teaching, it is of course 
important for the pupils to think they are finding out 
a great deal for themselves. 

Among miscellaneous helps towards exciting Interest 
we may mention Humour and Absurdity, Novelty and 
Paradox, and the exciting of the Curiosity, and of the 
Reasoning Faculty. 

Several useful lessons may be learnt from Advertise- 
ments : the Advertiser aims at arousing and keeping 
the Interest of the reader, and a study of Advertise- 
ments will therefore be a good study of the means 
of getting the attention of large masses of people. 

Or, again, various Articles in Reviews and Magazines, 
and even the Titles of Books and Articles, deserve a 
very careful examination. 



INTEREST 257 

Occasionally a little Flattery will excite the attention 
of the reader or hearer, and put him on his mettle. 
Instead of saying " This is so ", the Author may say 
" A thoughtful and intelligent reader cannot fail to 
see that this is so ", though one is bound to confess that 
this method is frequently abused. 

Interest cannot be kept up for an indefinite period of 
time. By Variety, Interest may be sustained for a long 
time. But, unless you are very clever and ingenious, 
you had better be brief. Monotony is a great fault, 
but often excessive length and mass and bulk is a 
greater fault — as in the case of food. 



CHAPTER XLVI. BEGINNINGS. 



A GOOD deal of what I say here applies not only to the 
very Beginning of any Composition, but to all the 
Beginnings of Paragraphs, etc., within the Composition 
itself. 

The importance of the Beginning is well known in 
the choice of Novels: the Beginning is only one degree less 
important than the Title, which itself is the Beginning 
of Beginnings. And another Comparison would be the 
Initial, which is the most important part of a name : 
it can even stand for the whole name. 

Beginnings should as a rule be Interesting: they 
should arouse the attention and keep it. Within the 
Essay itself, each Paragraph should begin in an In- 
teresting way, unless, that is to say, it is to be linked 
to the Paragraph before, in which case the principle 
may not be Interest, but rather Connexion. 

A Paradox makes a very good . Beginning. The 
reader or hearer thinks to himself, ' How can the man 
possibly say this ? what does he mean ? ' His curiosity 
and opposition are at once stimulated. One of the 
most excellent examples is the c Sermon on the Mount', 
which began by saying that the poor were happy : only 
of course it was a particular kind of poor, namely, those 
who were poor in selfish thoughts. 

Under Paradoxes might be classed untrue statements, 
which you then go on to prove untrue ; or partially true 
258 



BEGINNINGS 259 

statements, which you then go on to correct. To refute 
a Fallacy is often the best Beginning, because it is very 
human to like to hear someone else being ' shown up '. 
The Section of the 'Sermon' (on p. 212) began by ex- 
posing the Fallacy of Appearances. 

Among other Beginnings, a Quotation is very often 
found Interesting (see p. 163), or an Anecdote, or a 
Comparison, which is afterwards applied. 

A Question, for instance one which suggests a prob- 
lem, will frequently arouse the Interest and attention. 

Some people are fond of starting their Essays with 
a Scheme of the Essay itself, showing the scope of it 
(as Macaulay did in his " History "), the aim of the 
Writer, the importance of the questions, the difficulties, 
and so on. 

Others again start with a statement of the Authorities 
and Evidences as to the subject, and they say (see p. 140) 
where these are good and where they are bad. 

Practice in Beginnings is of great importance in all 
Composition, but of supreme importance in Speaking. 
And a very good kind of Practice is to take the Begin- 
nings of good Books, Chapters, and Paragraphs, and of 
good Articles, Essays, and Speeches, and to see exactly 
how the)- manage (or fail) to arouse Interest. 

A very easy and a very instructive study (cp. p. 256) 
is the study of Advertisements. It is the whole aim of 
the Advertiser to start his Advertisement with some- 
thing which will attract the reader's notice, and hence, 
although he goes to an extreme to which a serious Essay 
would not dare to go, yet the general principle is sound. 
Among various ways of starting Advertisements, one 
may notice the Quotation (which often has nothing 
whatever to do with the thing Advertised !). But the 



260 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

methods of attracting the millions are too numerous to 
be mentioned here : all that one need say is that they 
are very valuable in showing how to appeal to a popular 
audience. We might notice here that the Endings of 
these Advertisements are as a rule singularly uninter- 
esting : the Advertisements are not to be taken as a 
complete model for Composition ! That which starts 
as if some exciting adventure is to be described, and 
ends up with somebody's "Blood Mixture" or "Pill", 
has an interesting Beginning, but an Ending which can 
only be called Bathos or Anticlimax. 



CHAPTER XLVII. ENDINGS. 



In many Essays, and (to a smaller extent) in Speeches, 
the Ending may be written or prepared right at the 
very outset, and may be kept in view throughout. 

The Ending is sometimes even more important than 
the Beginning, corresponding to the last tastes of a 
meal, or the last notes of a tune. And, like the Begin- 
ning, the Ending applies not only to the whole Ending, 
but to the Ending of each Chapter and Paragraph. 

The Ending should as a rule be Impressive, or should 
encourage the reader or hearer to thi?ik ; but, within the 
Essay itself, the Ending of a Paragraph very often is 
rather to form a Connexion between that Paragraph and 
the next. 

The chief faults in Endings are abruptness and tame- 
ness. The Greeks were very careful here to avoid 
abruptness or even excitement : they liked to end 
quietly. This is perhaps not a modern characteristic ; 
but, as in so many departments, perhaps the Greeks 
were nearer to being right than we are. 

Their finishing Sentences often seem to us to be 
actually tame and insipid, and this is a fault which we 
are very careful to avoid. But many analogies (e.g. the 
analogy of Physical Exercise) would seem to favour the 
quiet Ending. 

If we are trying to make Endings as Impressive as 
possible, we shall sometimes succeed by Summarising 
261 



262 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

the subject, sometimes by pointing out how important 
the subject is, sometimes by suggesting problems for the 
reader or hearer to work out. 

But the particular Ending must depend a great deal 
on what the particular Aims may be. They may be to 
encourage or to frighten, to make people careful, to 
make them think for themselves, and so on. 

The best Practice will again be a careful study of 
Endings : those of Speeches and of Articles are best 
worth attention. Advertisements (as was shown on 
p. 260) generally have. very feeble Endings, and they 
will be studied from another point of view, namely, as 
specimens of that which is to be avoided. 

Among their other faults, besides tameness, they 
often end in a lot of short words. Had this Chapter 
ended here, it would have had the same fault. A few 
long words form a better close, just as Cicero liked to 
close with such Rhythms as the wonderfully effective 
'esse vidcatur\ 



CHAPTER XLVIII. CONNEXION AND COHESION. 



The principle of Connexion holds good for the Sections 
and Chapters of a Book or Speech, and for the 
Paragraphs of a Section or Chapter or Essay, and to 
some extent for the Sentence of a Paragraph, and the 
Words of a Sentence. 

The Connexion between one Paragraph and another 
is that which I wish to deal with here especially. An 
example is given directly. Each Idea should lead 
naturally to the Idea which comes next ; though this 
of course is only as a general rule. But what are 
the Connexions between various Ideas? 

First of all, both Ideas may belong to the same Class, 
the same general Heading. For instance, on p. 185 we 
should say that the Family Organisation, the Political 
Organisation, the Character, etc., of the Romans would 
come under the General Heading of ' The Romans 
considered by themselves', whereas the Alliances and 
Treachery and gradual Conquests, etc., would come 
under the Heading of 'The Romans in their dealings with 
others \ This then will be one principle of Connexion, 
viz. the fact that certain Ideas belong to a single 'group'. 

In the same List (on p. 185), we find Colonies, Roads, 
and Extension of Rights : these are not only members 
of the same ' group ', but they also have a Connexion 
with one another. The Roman Colonies were situated 
along the great Roads : in fact the Roads stretched 
263 



264 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

between Rome and her Colonies ; the subject of Roads, 
then, might easily lead to the subject of Colonies, or 
vice versa. What would be the Connexion between 
' the Roads and the Extension of Rights ? Obviously 
the Roads w r ould help to extend Roman influences, 
and, when Roman influences were being extended, 
Roman privileges were being extended also. The next 
Heading is the Allies : what might be the Connexion 
between the Allies and the Extension of Rights? 
Apparently there would be very little, but the tw T o 
could be linked together in some such way as this. 
The Romans extended their Rights and privileges to 
those whom they had conquered and to those whom 
they feared as enemies, but they also often extended 
them to faithful Allies. 

The Connexion, then, besides such a Connexion as 
where one Idea is a Cause or Hindrance or an Effect, 
would frequently depend merely on some casual link. 
One knows how, in conversation, something which 
happens to be mentioned in one subject leads people on 
to quite a new subject: this new subject in its turn leads 
people on to some third subject, although there may be 
no real Connexion between the three subjects : perhaps 
the Idea which leads from one to another may have 
very little to do with either of them. The Connexion, 
then, may include anything which links one Idea 
to another. See further " How to Remember " (to be 
published in February, 1900, by Warne & Co.). 

Of course much of the Connexion can be shown 
by the mere Arrangement (p. 172). If the Headings and 
Sub- Headings are carefully Arranged, each may be 
made to lead naturally to the next, so that the whole 
appears as one single chain. If the Headings on p. 185 



CONNEXION AND COHESION 265 

are written on Cards, each having a Card to itself, and 
if the Cards are then shuffled, it will be found that 
there may be little or no Connexion between any Head- 
ing and the next before it and the next after it : one 
will not naturally lead to the next. 

Among the different means of Connecting Paragraphs 
may be mentioned Comparisons or Contrasts. You 
wish to pass from one Idea to another, and you find 
that you will have to leap or jump ; there seems to 
be no bridge, and the question is how to form some 
bridge or link. Good Practice for this will be to study 
Loisette's System of Memory, e.g. in "How to Remember" 
(see p. 264) ; in fact Loisette's System might be called 
the Link-System ; and Comparisons and Contrasts will 
very often be a great help as Links. 

The exact Connexion may often be made clearer by 
actual words. ' Then ' will give something which follows 
either in point of time, or as a result or inference from 
the first Idea ('therefore'), and 'also' and 'while' will 
give something which happens very often side by side 
with the first Idea and in addition to it. ' But ' or 
' although ' will give something opposed to the Idea, e.g. 
as a Hindrance. ' For ' or ' because ' will give a Reason. 

Besides these Particles, the Connexion may be shown 
by some word in the previous Idea being repeated, or 
else by a Pronoun such as ' he ' or ' it ' or ' this '. The 
Connecting word need not come in the very beginning 
of the Paragraph : the Beginning had often better be 
Interesting : and indeed the reader or hearer may 
have his attention kept on the alert as he wonders 
what on earth the Connexion is going to be. 

Another means of Connexion is the Resumee, an in- 
stance of which may be given here. Supposing you 



-66 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

have six reasons for something, and you have given four 
reasons one after the other, perhaps in four consecutive 
Paragraphs ; and supposing the last Paragraph is a long 
one : let us call these four reasons A, B, C, and D ; the 
fifth reason, beginning a fifth Paragraph, may now be 
introduced as follows. " But the reason for this was not 
only A, B, C, and D : there was yet another reason. . . ."; 
and then one proceeds to give the fifth reason. This 
method is of great value because it not only serves 
to Connect the fifth reason with the other four, but it 
impresses all five Reasons together upon the mind of 
the reader or hearer. 

It is important to notice once again that the Con- 
nexion need not come at the Beginning of a Paragraph : 
the Paragraph may begin with the mention of the sub- 
ject or Idea of the Paragraph : in fact this is a most 
useful Beginning for Paragraphs. The beginning of 
Macaulay's " History of England " is often quoted for 
this : he mentions the scope of his History. 

Or (see above) the Beginning may be decided by the 
principle of Interest, and the Connexion between this 
and the preceding Paragraph may come afterwards. 
Sometimes there need be no Connexion at all : in fact 
a sudden jerk, a sudden transition to a new topic, 
will often be far more impressive than any Connexion 
can be. 

Good practice in Cohesion or Connexion will be 
to take any Article or Chapter or Book or Speech which 
leaves in your mind a general train of Ideas, and see 
why and how it is that the Ideas have been left behind 
in your mind in that particular order. The practice 
will be still better if you take some Writer who is well 
known for his Arrangement, for instance Burke, and 



CONNEXION AND COHESION 267 

analyse on Cards one of his works, e.g. his work on 
America ; then take the Cards and shuffle them, and 
try to re-arrange them in the best possible order, as if 
you were yourself going to address the House. After- 
wards take his work, and see what his order is and 
why it is just this and not that, and why it is better 
than yours for his particular purpose. 

Another exercise is to criticise bad order. Nothing 
is commoner than a piece of Composition which is a 
series of jerks : no Idea seems to lead naturally to the 
next. Take these Compositions, and criticise them ; 
then re-arrange the Ideas so that there will be Connexion 
and cohesion. In doing this you will notice that a good 
deal of the want of Connexion is due to the Ideas 
being arranged in a bad order, and to the Writer per- 
petually flying off at a tangent, drifting away from the 
point. 

You will learn from this that, if you wish your Ideas 
to be closely Connected with one another, you must pay 
great attention to the Law of Economy and of Unity : 
you must not stray away from the Idea which your Para- 
graph is describing. 

As to the Connexion between the various words 
of a Sentence, I shall leave that till we come to 
Chapter LIX. 



CHAPTER XLIX. EMPHASIS. 



As we saw in Chapter 222, Force and Vigour generally 
bring Emphasis with them. But I shall here treat 
Emphasis as a special subject, partly because there 
are other means of Emphasis besides Force and 
Vigour. 

I will assume that you already have a list of the 
Headings and Sub-Headings which you wish to Em- 
phasise, and there now arises the question of how you 
are to Emphasise them, and to Emphasise some more, 
but others less, according to the Underlining (p. 170). 

In Speaking, you instinctively speak louder, or you 
pause more, or you change the pitch or note, and so on. 
The nearest approach to this in Writing is actual Under- 
lining, Italics, and so on. 

In considering how to Emphasise any given Idea, 
let us first of all ask which parts of a word or of a 
particular Book are noticed most. The answer will 
obviously be, the Beginning, and the Ending. We 
notice the Title on the cover of a Book, and from 
the Beginning a good many people are apt to turn 
straight to the End. Some of them then have the 
audacity to say that they have read the Book ! In 
a word or name, also, we notice the Beginning, the 
Initial being most important, and the Ending, because 
it lingers longest as the last sound we hear. Thus the 
Beginning and the Ending will be places of Emphasis. 
268 



EMPHASIS 269 

But now let us take another Comparison. Supposing 
we wished to hammer a nail firmly into a board, we 
should first of all choose the right place in the wood, 
perhaps preparing the wood e.g. by making a hole in 
it with a gimlet or bradawl. Then we should get a 
clear view of the nail, and hit it straight on the head. 
This by the way would need some practice beforehand. 
We should hit it with force and vigour, firmly and 
quickly. We should repeat the blows: perhaps each 
blow would not be quite the same as the last, but, of 
course, the heavier the head of the hammer was, the more 
easily would the nail go into the wood. And it would 
also be an advantage to draw back the head of the 
hammer before we struck. Supposing the first nail 
were not quite secure, we should add another nail or a 
screw as near as possible to the first, but not exactly in 
the same place. We might also put the second in at a 
different angle from the first. 

Strange as it may sound, all these processes will find 
their analogies in the Emphasising of Ideas. 

Let us take yet another principle. We can bring an 
object into prominence by throwing a very strong light 
on to that object, or by throwing lights on to it from 
many sides, and especially by throwing upon it an 
unusual and unexpected light, and best of all by 
throwing the background into darkness. 

It would be a good Exercise for the reader, in 
working out Comparisons (p. 281), to try for himself 
how this can all be applied to the Emphasising of 
Ideas, before he reads wliaft I am going to say now. 



270 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Let us apply these principles. 

1. First of all, corresponding to the Loudness, etc., 
to mark Emphasis there would be Italics or Underlining, 
or thick black type, or Capitals. 

2. Then there might be a pause before an Emphatic 
point. This would be called leading up to a Climax. 
The expectation would be raised so that the way would 
be prepared for the important Idea. By this means 
Interest would be aroused, and a sense of expectancy. 
Thus, for example, Emphasis might be prepared for by 
means of a Question. 

The right place is of great importance : the Be- 
ginning is one emphatic position, and the Ending is 
another (see p. 261). 

The way would be prepared hy means of a familiar 
and easy starting-point, something which we know 
already better than the thing which is to be Em- 
phasised. By this means the point will be clearly 
realised. A Comparison would therefore be useful. 

In the expression of the Idea there must be brisk- 
ness , Clearness, and Brevity : the words must sharply hit 
the nail straight on the head, and this will need con- 
siderable practice beforehand. 

There will have to be Force and Vigour (see p. 222) : 
they are very very hard things to define. Dignity 
and Rapidity are among the common characteristics 
of Force and Vigour. 

Repetition is the next means, and it is the commonest. 
We can repeat the exact words, or we can change the 
w r ords slightly, varying by the abstract, the concrete, 
or (see p. 273) the very concrete, and varying the Voice, 
Mood, Tense and the forms of the Sentence (see p. 253). 



EMPHASIS 271 

On p. 266 I have pointed out that the Resumee Method 
is one of the best forms of Repetition : it means the 
gathering up of all the old before you proceed to 
the new. 

A mass of words (which might be called weight or 
' bulk ') is often a means of Emphasis : the number 
of words and the size of words impress the eye, and 
also impress the ear, and, although this may degenerate 
into padding, still even padding has its advantages for 
purposes of Emphasis. If you give an important Idea 
a longer time in which to impress itself upon the mind, 
it will impress itself upon the mind more firmly than 
if it had only had a moment. 

Variety in the point of view is of very great value, 
as we saw on pp. 181, 214. We get to know a place quite 
well if we pass through it again and again, and not 
always by the same roads, but from different directions: 
we get to know each of its features better and better. 
Hence there must be changes, which will keep the 
attention fixed, and these can be made, e.g., by means 
of Parallels, Comparisons, and Contrasts. 

Among Contrasts we may include refutation of the 
wrong view. Few means of Emphasising are more im- 
portant than Contrasts and refutation. To start with 
the question, ' Is it so-and-so ? ' and then to prove that 
it is not so-and-so, then to ask ' Is it this ? ' and then 
to prove that it is not quite this, and to go on thus, 
may help more than anything else to arouse the interest 
of the reader or hearer, because it will encourage him 
to think with you. Some of the greatest Teachers 
have used this means, as we have seen in the passage 
from the New Testament (p. 212), and in the introduction 
to Guizot's "History of Civilisation ". 



272 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Another very useful means is (see p. 278) the throwing 
of the unimportant parts into the background : sometimes 
this can be done by differences of type. This is one 
of the parts of Composition which people have practised 
least of all. Some Americans perhaps err most with 
respect to Emphasising too many things : they suffer 
in their advertisements and in their notices in certain 
Papers, because, when they wish to Emphasise an Idea, 
they have no further means at their disposal : all their 
best means (see p. 247) have been used up for compara- 
tively unimportant and trivial matters. 

That which is striking also conduces to Emphasis, as 
Carlyle's writings show. Proverb, Paradox, Epigram, 
exaggeration, humour, and unexpected order of words, 
all these can be means of Emphasis. 

An instance would illustrate some of these methods. 
Supposing we wished to Emphasise the division of 
labour which had already begun in early Rome, we 
could say that some of the early Romans were en- 
gaged in war, agriculture, and politics, while others 
were engaged in trading and industries. We might 
emphasise this point by means of italics, etc. We 
might arouse attention by asking what were the means 
by which Rome succeeded : this question could come 
at the Beginning. We might, though this is by the 
way, Emphasise the Idea by means of a picture or 
drawing ; and we might also Emphasise it by pointing 
out how the health of the Romans was promoted by 
their variety of labour. 

A clear statement of the facts would be very 
necessary, and it is astonishing how much practice is 
needed before a clear statement can be given. The 
statement might be made striking, or Brevity might 



EMPHASIS 273 

be ensured, by the omission of unnecessary words. 
Then the exact words might be repeated, or the idea 
might be repeated in a more Concrete form. For 
instance it might be said that the early Romans were 
mostly farmers, politicians, soldiers, shepherds, traders, 
and so on. A still more Concrete way of expressing 
this idea would be " Cato was a type of the early 
Roman : he was a farmer, a soldier, a politician, etc." 
This would be nearly the most Concrete form of all. The 
best method of repeating this idea would be to gather 
it up at the end, by a Resumee (p. 266). 

Among other means may be mentioned a lengthy 
Paragraph (p. 312) in which the Idea is described; and 
the use of long words within the Paragraph. English or 
other Parallels would be good, and Comparisons, such 
as the analogy of the ants, and their division of labour. 
Contrasts also would be of service : the Romans might 
be contrasted with the nomads and barbarians, among 
whom little division of labour is known. Under Con- 
trast, we might expose the Fallacy that the Romans 
were mere warriors, or were mere farmers. 

The rest of the points which we do not wish to 
emphasise could be put in such ordinary language that 
they might attract little attention. This would help to 
throw up the more important fact that the Romans had 
division of labour. Besides this, Paradox, Epigrams, 
and exaggeration might be brought into play. It 
would be an exaggeration to say that in early Rome 
.there was not a single idle man : but it would not be 
very far from the truth. A humorous description of 
Cincinnatus might help to impress the Idea upon the 
mind. 

To these we can add yet other means of Emphasis. 

T 



274 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

We often remember things better when we know what 
has caused them, or what has helped them, and what has 
been their effect. For instance, we should remember 
the History of Rome far better if we knew the 
Geography which had helped to make that History, 
and we should know the Geography far better, in its 
turn, if we knew its effects on Roman History. And so 
we should remember the division of labour better if 
we knew some of its causes, for instance, the fact that 
the Romans had defences and buildings of stone, and 
that they were trained by constantly fighting with some 
of their enemies. We might remember this division of 
labour better if we remembered its effects, for instance 
its effects upon health and upon progress. 

I began with an illustration, and I will now give 
another. If some General were attacking an enemy, and 
wished to succeed, what would be his method ? First 
of all he would have practised a good deal beforehand. 
Then he would try to draw the enemy on to his own 
ground, or at any rate he would learn the enemy's 
ground, and as much about the enemy as he could. 
He would learn their strong and weak points. Then 
he would probably concentrate his forces on one par- 
ticular point, reserving some of his forces however in 
case this attack should fail. This illustration might 
be of value towards a study of Emphasis. If you wish 
to impress a thing upon the mind, put yourself in the 
reader's position, and then study his point of view : in 
order to make quite sure, it is better to approach a, 
thing from too many points of view than from too 
few. 

A hint may be offered here about the order of words. 
Just as the General must pay a great deal of attention 



EMPHASIS 275 

to the order and disposition of his troops if he wishes 
to produce a definite effect, so the Writer must pay 
attention to the order and disposition of his words. 
A natural order of words in a Sentence would be 
Subject, Adverb, Verb, and Object, though this is liable 
to many variations. Now supposing we wish to Em- 
phasise the Verb, we should not leave it in the middle, 
but should put it at the Beginning. The Adverb also 
may often be put at the Beginning, and the Object as 
well. The Subject of the Sentence, on the other hand, 
would not be Emphatic if it came at the Beginning : 
the Emphatic place for it would be the End. 

A very common Greek and Latin means of Em- 
phasis must never be forgotten, viz. the Anticipation 
of an Idea or Word by a Pronoun like ' this '. We 
can imagine the Greek or Latin Speaker using gesture 
as well, when he said "But I know this: he never yet 
has acted save for his own interests " (cp. the origin 
of 'that', in of 'he said that it was so'*) 'They 
did it for the following reason : (viz. that) they were 
afraid of our power'. 

This ' Figure ' rouses the interest by suspense : or it 
may be compared to a sign-post or to a hand pointing 
towards the important thing. 

The reverse of this would often be less effective, 
e.g. ' The} r were afraid of our power : this was why 
they did it'. 

Closely akin to it is the English ' It was by him 
that the Drama was purified ', ' It is this that we need '. 
The Greeks and Latins could change their order of 
words far more freely than we can, since we, for 
example, generally have to rely on the order to show 

* It has no Emphasis now. 



2/6 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

which is the Subject and which is the Object (in ' The 
orator abused the general '). Our ' Circumlocution ', then, 
is often almost our only weapon. It owes part of its 
effect to the bulk of words, as if one were to say 
'By him, by him, by him . . .' 

It is curious that Emphasis may be given both by 
many words and by few words : the many words (even 
if not well chosen) are to some extent like the large- 
headed hammer (see p. 269): they have mass and ' bulk ', 
and the eye and ear are arrested for a longer time ; the 
few words (if well chosen) are more like the straight 
and well-aimed blow with the smaller-headed hammer : 
they arrest the understanding, which unconsciously 
blesses them for being brief and business-like. 

Connectives also may be many or few : there may 
be the slowly and carefully uttered items (' beef and 
bread and cheese and beer and tobacco '), or the short 
sharp incisive list ('beef, bread, cheese, beer, tobacco'). 
The latter is rather more appropriate to exciting 
passages. 

The reader should take Bain's "Rhetoric and Composition", 
and study and practise the many means of Emphasis which he 
suggests : my Book does not deal primarily with details of the 
kind. Let the reader notice the effect of such 'Figures' as the 
following. See further p. 299. 

(a) Inversion, e.g. 'life eternal' ; 

(6) 'Metonymy' etc., e.g. 'sail' meaning 'ship' ('Part for 
Whole ') ; ' red tape ' meaning ' official formalities ' 
('Accompanying sign') ; 'linen' meaning 'linen sheets' 
('Material'); 'the pen' meaning 'written words' 
('Instrument'); 'Bradshaw' meaning " Bradshaw's 
Guide" ('Agent'); 'the purse' meaning 'money' 
('Contents') ; 'the bright death' meaning 'the weapon' 
(' Effect ') ; and so on. 



-EMPHASIS 277 

Some of the above may become quite commonplace, and may 
lose their Emphasis altogether. 

(c) i Chiasmus \ e.g. 

' here to-day, to-morrow gone '. 

(d) Word-play, e.g. 

' what I have written, I have written ' (quoted by Bain : here 
the second ' I have written ' means ' I have written once for all : it 
is final 5 ). 

These are but a few of the means of Emphasis : but 
I do not wish to make this Chapter too bulky by a 
fuller list. The reader who wishes for further informa- 
tion may study the Chapter (p. 299) on Rhetorical 
Devices : nine-tenths of them may be used (partly) in 
order to draw the attention to some important point. 
But the above means will suffice for ordinary purposes : 
only the art of Emphasising must be practised all by 
itself. It is not acquired in a day. 

Note. 

This Chapter is badly put together. After I had 
written it, I came across several useful books that I 
had not seen before. Instead of re-writing the Chapter, 
I thought I would leave it for the reader to Analyse 
into Headings, and then (see p. 172 foil.) to Arrange, 
with special attention to the Order and Connexions. 



CHAPTER L. ABSENCE OF EMPHASIS. 



To emphasise an Idea is much easier (if the art has 
been practised) than to state an Idea without Emphasis, 
or rather, to throw it into the background. So it is 
often necessary to practise self-restraint, and to make 
some Sentences purposely unemphatic or even weak, 
if the Emphasis and Vigour is to have its full effect 
when it is really needed. 

I have already spoken of Advertisements, especially 
some American Advertisements. What a great deal is 
needed before the attention is arrested and fixed. 
This is because the attention has so often been arrested 
and fixed where little or no attention was deserved. 

Purposely to weaken an idea is a hard art. But a 
few hints may help. 

The unemphatic position in the Essay or Paragraph 
is generally the latter end of the middle : here should be 
put some of the ' bulk ' of the food, as it were, the fibrous 
matter, as opposed to the appetising elements. 

The Idea should be expressed once only, in simple 
language, with no striking words or order of words 
or Rhythm. There should be no Rhetorical Question, 
no forcible Comparison or Contrast, no Epigram. 

A good Exercise might be to read a Daily Paper, or 
an American Paper, and re-write it, taking care that 
Emphasis shall fall only on what you consider to be 
the really important points. 



CHAPTER LI. PARALLELS, 



In this Chapter I shall say very little, leaving most 
of my remarks for the next Chapter (Comparisons). 

Parallels (in spite of what many Authorities say) 
must be worked out separately. In an Essay on Cicero, 
for example, it will not do to trust to some Parallel 
'presenting itself naturally to you' (see p. 174). This 
may do well enough for the genius, but for the learner 
it may mean that no Parallel will present itself. For 
the learner a better piece of advice will be ' Search if 
you wish to find'. It may be some little time before 
e.g. Demosthenes and Gladstone ' present themselves \ 
And, even when the names are chosen, that is not all : 
it remains to be seen how far each of these Orators 
is ' parallel ' to Cicero, and how far he is to be con- 
trasted with Cicero. 

Nor is even this sufficient. For Cicero was not only 
an orator : he was also what we should call a ' gentle- 
man ' : here we might compare Xenophon with him. 
As a letter-writer, he suggests comparison and contrast 
with Pliny ; and so on. 

In fact, unless this branch of Essay-writing be 
worked out by itself, it will be done badly. And, as 
we shall see (p. 284), it is a very important branch : for 
it gives Variety, it gives Interest, it gives Emphasis, and 
it may give Clearness. It demands much care and 
labour. 

279 



28o HOW TO EXPRESS. IDEAS: STYLE 

For what points are we to find Parallels ? For points 
which we wish to emphasise (see p. 170), and for points 
which we wish merely to make clear, and (occasionally) 
for points which we wish to make interesting. If we 
have to consider certain characteristics of Philip of 
Macedon, or Julius Caesar, we should find that a 
Comparison (and Contrast) with Napoleon might serve 
all these purposes. 



CHAPTER LI I. COMPARISONS, ANALOGUES, ETC. 



Of Parallels we have already said a few words : we saw 
how, if one wished to show that Philip of Macedon was a 
great General, a great Nation-maker, and an unscrupulous 
Diplomatist, the bare statement might not be enough : 
one might have to try to find some Parallel in order to 
make these three points clear, and to Emphasise them. 
And we found, as a Parallel, Napoleon. We know that 
Napoleon was a great General, relying as Philip did on 
the charge of his cavalry, we know that he was to some 
extent a Nation-maker, or at any rate a ' welder ' of the 
Nation, and we know that he was also a Diplomatist. 

We now come to something rather wider than the 
Parallel, and that is the Comparison or Analogy or 
Illustration. 

It is a great mistake, a great fallacy, to say to 
Speakers, or Essay- Writers, or Writers generally, "Do 
not search for Comparisons, but only use them if they 
come of their own accord : otherwise your Comparison 
will be forced and unnatural." This is all very well for 
the genius or for the experienced Writer ; but just con- 
sider my own case. When I began this Book, I wanted 
to make it clear to the reader that Essay- Writing was 
a very difficult and complicated art : but no Comparison 
or Illustration of this occurred to me at once and 
naturally. Is it then true that I should have used no 
Comparison at all ? Of course not. I had to search and 
281 



282 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

think of something which would illustrate my point, 
i.e. make it clear and emphasise it. After a while it 
occurred to me that Building was one appropriate Com- 
parison (see p. xv), and that the playing of Games was 
another (see pp. xiv, xix). The latter I chose because 
it came within my own experience, the former I chose 
because it was very easy to understand. I ask the 
reader to read once or twice the passages referred to, 
and then to decide whether or no these Comparisons 
or Illustrations helped to make my meaning clearer. 
Possibly the reader may be able to see that the Com- 
parisons have been worked out separately, that they did 
not come to me uncalled-for and unsought. But I think 
that if they emphasise the complexity of the art, they 
are better expressed than unexpressed, even though 
they have some disadvantages. The 'joints' and the 
' mechanism ' may appear, it is true, but it is better that 
they should appear than that the writing should be 
obscure, or the point passed over unnoticed. Moreover, 
with careful practice, the 'joints' will come to be covered 
over, and the 'mechanism', though it may not be quite 
hidden, will at any rate work more smoothly and easily : 
the clumsy laboriousness in the early stages is almost 
bound to disappear and to give way to neatness and 
skill. 

It is for this purpose that I suggest the special 
Exercises at the end of this Chapter. After the reader 
has seen what the advantages of Comparisons are, he 
will be able to judge whether these Exercises are 
worth trying or not. 

Before I begin pointing out the uses and values of 
Comparisons, let me give one or two more instances. Let 
the reader look at p. 269. He will see that Emphasis is 



COMPARISONS, ANALOGIES, ETC. 283 

the subject. I wished to make clear to the ordinary 
reader, the idea of Emphasis and the means of giving 
Emphasis. I therefore chose the Comparison of the 
hammer and nail, and the light 

Supposing, again, I wished to make clear the Roman 
system of Roads and Colonies, and to show what they 
were like, how they were placed, and what effects they 
had, or what was their relation to Rome itself, I might 
give, among other Comparisons, that of the spider and 
its legs. I might say that the legs of the spider go out 
in various directions from the body, that they are all 
attached to the body, that the blood circulates from the 
body to the legs and back again. I might say that 
the feelers at the end of the legs are far off from the 
body, and in various directions, and that yet they 
depend on the body for knowing what to do, and 
for being fed and protected, while the body itself could 
not easily reach in various directions and far off without 
these feelers. 

It stands to reason that, if the subject is well known, 
the best Comparisons will come more easily and more 
rapidly, so that the greatest help in finding Comparisons 
will be to learn the subject thoroughly, and to study 
it from many points of view. 

As to the numerous uses and values of Comparisons, 
they depend on these Comparisons being used in the 
right way ; and the first point to notice is that they 
must be perfectly clear not only to the Writer but also 
to the reader. The Writer has to put himself into 
the position of the reader before he can be sure that 
the Comparison is the right one. 

It follows from this that those Comparisons which 
appeal to most people will be the best for ordinary 



284 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

purposes : see p. 236. It will be necessary to start with 
what the reader knows, and with what is familiar to 
him, before one proceeds to the new point which one 
wishes to make clear and to Emphasise. 

The great secret in working out Comparisons, then, 
is to try to find what is familiar to the average reader, 

(1) Comparisons help to make the points clearer. One 
simple way of expressing an Idea may fail to attract 
some reader's attention, and the Comparison may just 
supply this want. It is for this reason, namely, the 
value of Comparison for Clearness, that they must be 
used in Teaching, or at any rate in the early stages of 
Teaching. 

(2) Comparisons, if they are well chosen, arouse Interest \ 
partly because they are understood, and partly because 
they are striking. They often actually give a feeling of 
pleasure, or at any rate of satisfaction. 

(3) They therefore help the Memory ; for it is easiest 
to remember what is understood and what is interesting. 
Moreover they often serve as links, and improve the 
power of associating Ideas. . 

(4) They encourage people to use their reasoning 
powers, and to draw Inferences. 

(5) Repetition is often needed throughout life, but 
mere Repetition is apt to be tedious. Now a Com- 
parison is a kind of Repetition, while not appearing to 
be one. We see this in the case of Philip and Napoleon 
(p. 281), and in many other cases as well. 

(6) For this cause, Comparisons are an excellent 
means of Emphasising, for, as we saw on p. 216, 
Emphasis can be given by Repetition. If, therefore, 
a Comparison is a kind of a Repetition, then it can 
also become the means of giving Emphasis. 



COMPARISONS, ANALOGIES, ETC. 285 

(7) The great advantage of a Comparison over a mere 
Repetition is that it ensures Variety. The idea may be 
nearly the same, but the point of view may be changed. 

(8) In Comparisons also there is some scope for 
Humour, which is generally excluded from the more 
serious Essay, and perhaps rightly so. 

(9) More generally speaking, Comparisons encourage 
originality, and observation ; and, in our present 
Educational System in England, originality and ob- 
servation are not much encouraged : they are generally 
sternly crushed. Every now and then one notices 
how apt a little child's illustrations are, and how they 
describe an idea far more neatly than a grown-up 
person is wont to. There is a great deal to be learnt 
from this and, among other lessons, the fact that this 
power of Illustration is not cultivated nearly enough 
as life advances. The little girl who said that after 
influenza her legs were very "giddy", was using (un- 
consciously) a most vivid Comparison, and it would 
be impossible to think of any better means of describ- 
ing the feeling. 

(10) Comparisons will encourage very wide learning 
and studying, especially the studying of Nature and 
human nature. They will give a fresh interest to a walk 
in the country or in a town, if one knows that the walk 
may supply illustrations which will help one's powers 
of Writing or Speaking. 

(11) For Comparisons help to connect the various 
Sciences, and the different departments of life, with 
one another. In fact, they counteract one great fault 
in our Education, namely, that so many studies are 
carried on quite separately. By Comparisons one learns 
tc see that the various studies are closely connected 



286 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

with one another. Indeed, there are certain principles 
which apply to almost every subject, and, if we can 
learn them in the case of any one subject, and can also 
get the power of Comparing things, we can easily apply 
these same principles to other subjects also. 

(12) Thus the power of comparing things may save 
a great deal of time and lab our > besides being a little 
Education in itself. 

(13) The person who can Compare things and work 
out Analogies readily will be able to use masses and 
masses of information which otherwise he would never 
use at all. In the lumber-room of his mind he will 
find thousands of odds and ends which will no longer 
grow dusty from not being employed, but will be taken 
out and applied for valuable purposes. For example, 
he knows much about Games, and, when he has acquired 
the power of Comparing things, he will be able to use 
Games to illustrate great principles such as (see p. 289) 
Co-operation, etc. 

(14) Thus every subject, however great or however 
small, will be made interesting and useful. 

(15) Sympathy with others cannot fail to be increased 
in the person who is constantly asking himself: "What 
will the average reader most readily understand ? 
What is there in his mind, alrea.dy, by means of which 
I can describe this new Idea to him ? " And this is 
not all, for 

(16) Comparisons suggest many new points. Take an 
example. You wish to find out and you try to work out 
what are the Bonds of Union between England and her 
Colonies. You arrive at certain Ideas, after a long time. 
But supposing you ask yourself another question, viz. 
" What are the Bonds of Union between two members 



COMPARISONS, ANALOGIES, ETC. 287 

of one family ? ", then you could easily work out the 
answer, because you would be starting with something 
familiar to yourself, in fact, part of your everyday 
experience. This second question would suggest many 
Ideas (see p. 112) which would not occur to you at all 
if you considered the first question all by itself. And 
the same would apply if you first considered the 
advantages of an Absolute Monarchy in a State, and 
then the advantages of the Family being ruled by a 
good father. 

(17) Comparisons and Analogies are also valuable 
Evidences. Perhaps they rather suggest things than 
prove them, but still they are somewhat of the nature 
of a proof. The mere fact that the Family succeeds 
under the government of a good father is a kind of a 
proof that a State might succeed under the government 
of a good Monarch. 

(18) For Literary purposes, Comparisons may form 
transitions and links between one Paragraph and 
another, or between one Sentence and another. 

For the Classes and Uses of Metaphors and other 
' Tropes ', I must refer to special works on Rhetoric. 
Metaphors, etc., may serve much the same purpose 
as Comparisons, and had very similar origins, though 
now many of them (such as ' I see and understand 
and grasp what you 're hammering into me ') have 
passed or are passing into our everyday language. 
They are losing their vividness, and becoming com- 
monplace and regular means of expression.* 

But, even when they have almost passed into this 
language, even then they must not be 'mixed' rashly, 

* See "How to Learn Philology" (Sonnenschein), p. 223. 



288 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

as on p. 254, or even as in the sentence bracketed above. 
In such cases it is safer to appeal to the most refined 
and particular ear ; so that, if it is felt that ' under these 
circumstances ' fsee p. 207) might offend him who 
remembers that circumstantia were once 'things that 
stand around', the word ' under' should be avoided, and 
perhaps the phrase 'under these conditions' should be 
substituted. 

Classes of Comparisons and Analogies. 

The different classes of Comparisons or Analogies 
cannot all be mentioned here. It must also constantly 
be remembered that no Comparison is an exact 
Parallel : things can only resemble one another 
partially. But, in the choice of Comparisons, there 
is one principle which is almost universal, and that 
is to describe what is not well known by what is better 
known, especially by what appeals to the senses of 
sight, hearing, touch, and taste. And in each case 
the thing which is Compared must be better known, 
and more familiar, not only to yourself hit also to the 
reader or hearer. 

The best Comparisons and Analogies are from 
Nature, the plants and their seeds, the animals, the 
' elements ' of Nature, such as heat and light : all these 
have formed the stock-in-trade of Writers and Speakers, 
and many of them have passed into the class of every- 
day words. Indeed, Language has been called a store- 
house of faded Metaphors.* 

Family life, again, gives many useful Comparisons 
(see p. 286), and so do the various occupations in life, 
e.g. not only feeding but also the more serious 

* See t: How to Learn Philology " (Sonnenschein). 



COMPARISONS, ANALOGIES, ETC. 289 

occupations, such as business — and athletics. In fact, all 
that men do, all, that is to say, that appeals to the 
public, can be made a means of Expressing and 
Emphasising a new Idea. For instance, on p. xv, 
we alluded to the art of Building, and, on p. xiv, to 
the art of learning Games. 

The New Testament should be very carefully studied, 
as it gives a good idea of the best Metaphors and 
Analogies for Literary purposes. Matthew's Gospel 
alone would be an admirable field for research, and this 
I should suggest as the first kind of Exercise, namely, 
to go through various Writers and to see what Com- 
parisons they use (p. 214), and what are the most effective 
Comparisons. 

There are two other kinds of Exercise as well. 
A Class of boys at School, for example, might be 
asked what lessons Football teaches, what it illustrates. 
This form of Exercise would be to take something 
which is familiar, and then to find out for what 
Comparisons it can be used : or in other words how to 
apply an Analogy which is already given to them. 
Thus Football might illustrate Co-operation, Special- 
isation, and the effects of Practice ; it might illustrate 
Endurance, Promptitude, and Pluck, and also Com- 
petition in its best form, and the value of government 
by a single person : and many other things from the 
list above can be treated as Exercises of the same 
kind. 

The third Exercise would be to ask, 'How can one 
illustrate something which is less well known and less 
familiar to the reader or hearer ? ' Using the above 
instance, if one wished to illustrate Co-operation to 
boys one would ask what thing there was which 
u 



290 HO IV TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

was well known to boys, and which would illustrate 
this principle ; and a good answer would be a Game 
of Football or Cricket. 

Undoubtedly this last Exercise would be one of 
the best for Teachers, for it would force them to ask 
themselves a question which they may often have 
asked themselves in their daily life, but may seldom 
have troubled to apply in teaching, namely, ' What do 
the learners already understand? what is fa7niliar to 
them ? 071 zvhat foundations ca?i I build up the new 
Ideas which I wish to describe to them ? ' 



CHAPTER LIII. CONTRASTS. 



CONTRASTS are very like Comparisons in their effects 
and in their value : indeed, what I have said about 
Comparisons will apply almost without exception to 
Contrasts. These two great helps to Clearness, and 
Interest (and Pleasure and Satisfaction), and Variety, 
and Emphasis, can be used as alternatives, or, in special 
cases, can be used side by side to supplement one 
another. 

In each case it is for the Writer to judge whether the 
Clearness or Emphasis can better be given by a Com- 
parison or by a Contrast. 

If Freedom were to be described, probably it would 
be better to describe it by its Contrasts, Slavery, etc. 
We cannot properly realise what light is unless we also 
consider darkness. Pleasure would not be pleasure if 
we are always in the same state : before we can realise 
what pleasure is, we must have either the condition in 
which we feel no pleasure, or (better still) the other 
extreme, pain. A holiday, again, has no meaning for 
a person who never works : at least it has no real 
meaning. 

To show the value of Contrasts, I can take an in- 
stance very near home. If I wish to teach the art of 
Essay-Writing, I can do my best to show how the art 
might be acquired, or how it would not be acquired : 
I can say what is right, or what is wrong ; what is a 
merit, or what is a fault. If I wish to make anything 
291 



292 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

particularly Clear or Emphatic, then I shall probably use 
both means. I shall advise the reader to notice what is 
bad as well as what is good. 

A special branch of Contrasts is of great value for 
the beginning of a Book, or of an Essay, or of a section 
of an Essay, or of a Speech ; and this is the plan of 
excluding and Rejecting. Guizot began his " History of 
Civilisation " by asking what Civilisation meant : he 
said, ' Does it mean this ? ' and the answer was ' No ; 
not only this.' Then he said ' Does it mean a second 
thing ? ' and the answer was ' No, not merely this second 
thing.' Finally he said what Civilisation did consist of, 
after he had paved the way for it and excited the 
reader's attention and had cleared the ground by his 
statements as to what Civilisation did not consist of. 
We have seen a similar instance in the New Testament 
example (on p. 212): in order to describe who are really 
good, it was necessary to say who are not really good, 
for instance, those who merely say good words or who 
look pious. 

Another branch of Contrast would be what may be 
called Parallelism. It will be seen very well in the 
same passage (p. 215), where the house on the rock is 
Contrasted with the house on the sand ; the perfect 
balance between the two descriptions cannot fail to 
give us a kind of pleasure, which can only be realised 
if we alter the description of the second house so that 
it shall no longer correspond. This might be done by 
taking for this the version on p. 214; and the sense of 
discomfort produced by the change of words would be 
very considerable. 

I need not say very much here about the different 
Uses of Contrasts, because what I have said about 



CONTRASTS 293 

Comparisons will apply almost throughout. I shall 
simply repeat here that Contrasts, like Comparisons, 
are useful for many purposes. The reader should work 
these out, with his own instances. 

(1) Clearness ; 

(2) Interest given to the subject in hand ; 

(3) the helping of the Memory ; 

(4) the helping of the Reason and the power of 

drawing Inferences ; 

(5) Repetition (which should not seem to be Repe- 

tition, see p. 216); 

(6) Emphasis ; 

(7) Variety (not so much in the Idea as in the way 

in which one looks at it) ; 

(8) Humour ; 

(9) Originality, and Observation ; 

(10) the use of wide learning and study (see p. 286): 

masses of information, which might other- 
wise be unused, become valuable ; 

(11) the Connexion between various Sciences and 

other subjects (p. 285) ; 

(12) the fresh interest given to every subject, and to 

daily life ; 

(13) (to a less extent than with Comparisons), 

Sympathy; 

(14) the suggestion of many new points; 

(15) Evidences. 

A word may be said about this last point. We have 
seen (p. 149) that one special branch of Evidence is 
called the Evidence of Omissions. Supposing some- 
one is looking at a Testimonial and he finds that in 
that Testimonial the person is said to have certain 
merits, but that one or two of the merits which he 



294 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

requires are not present ; he begins to feel (that is to 
say, if he is used to dealing with Testimonials) that 
these merits may be wanting in the person ; for he 
says to himself, ' If they had been present, they would 
have been mentioned.' But he does not decide im- 
mediately : if he can, he gets other Testimonials and 
sees whether the same omissions occur in them. If 
a Testimonial of someone, who wishes to be a school- 
master, omits some important characteristics of a good 
schoolmaster, and if all the Testimonials without ex- 
ception omit this same characteristic, the Evidence is 
almost conclusive. At any rate, even if the Contrast 
does not prove anything, it may suggest a great deal 
which may be worth following out. 

In History -topics especially, where the Evidence is 
often very meagre, we have to work a great deal by 
means of Contrasts and Opposites. If we wish to 
judge of the effect of a certain Drug, we cannot judge 
properly simply by administering the Drug and noting 
what takes place afterwards. A patient has fever, and 
takes a Drug, and, after a week, the fever disappears. 
Now it does not follow that it is the Drug that has 
removed the fever ; for someone might say that the 
fever would have been removed without the Drug : 
perhaps he might say that the fever would have been 
removed quicker without the Drug. To judge of the 
real effect of the Drug one would have to take two 
very similar cases. In the first case one would let the 
fever continue without the Drug, and one would note 
what happened ; in the second case one would administer 
the Drug, and also note what happened. If the cases 
were really similar, then the Contrast between the two 
would be Evidence. And so it is with History : if we 



CONTRASTS 295 

wish to work out what the effect of some King of 
Spain was upon Spain, we had best work out this 
not merely by reading what the Authorities tell us, 
but also by looking at the state of Spain before and 
after this King had ruled it. 

Contrasts, in fact, will suggest new features and will 
sometimes be actual Evidence. 

But, as with Comparisons, so with Contrasts, we 
cannot say that all the above results will hold good unless 
the Contrasts are used properly. For instance, to use 
Contrasts for every Idea throughout the Essay would 
be monotonous, and inappropriate, and would also 
offend against the Law of Proportion : for it would 
make all the Ideas of equal importance. We must re- 
serve the Contrasts for special occasions. In using 
Contrasts, no less than in using Comparisons, there is 
a certain self-restraint necessary. 

Exercises are ready to hand everywhere : any state- 
ment can be taken, and the opposite or opposites to it 
can be worked out. Abstract terms can also be taken, 
such as honour. We cannot really define the word 
honour until we know exactly what the context is, 
and even then the best way will often be to say that 
of which honour is the Opposite, e.g. obscurity, or dis- 
grace, or shame. 

There is hardly any Speech or Essay-subject which 
does not demand the use of Contrasts and the study 
of Contrasts as a special Exercise. In fact, if I were 
asked to say which departments of Speaking and Essay- 
Writing had the greatest educational value, I should 
certainly mention Comparisons and Contrasts, when 
worked out as separate Exercises, as among the three 
best. 



CHAPTER LIV. QUESTIONS. 



THERE are probably very few who realise what is the 
nature of an ordinary Question. It is a kind of subject 
without a predicate : for instance, if I say ' Where is 
Jones?', it is not a complete Sentence, but only the 
beginning of a Sentence : I might just as well say 

'Jones is ' : the Sentence will not be complete 

until the answer has been given, e.g. ' in town'. 

And this can be proved by the raising of the voice 
during a Question : we know that in an ordinary 
Sentence the note on which we speak goes lower and 
lower : we begin on a high note and finish on a lower 
note, and the Sentence itself does not seem to be done 
until this lower note has been reached. A Question, on 
the other hand, does not reach this lower note, that 
is to say, it is like an unfinished tune : the answer 
will finish off the tune by ending on the lower note.* 
This only applies to the ordinary Question. For there 
are other Questions which are really Statements or 
Denials, or have other meanings : for instance, " Is it 
not so?" can be nearly equivalent to " It is so", and " Is 
it so ? " can be nearly equivalent to il It is not so ". 

But here I shall speak chiefly of those Questions 
which are of the nature of true Questions, especially 
those that ask for information. 

The great advantage of a Question is that it may 

* See "How to Learn Philology" (Sonnenschein), p. 192. 
296 



QUESTIONS 297 

encourage the reader or heaj-er to think for himself, and 
prepare the ground for what is coming. There are certain 
Questions, also, which are much better than Statements, 
because they practically force the reader or hearer to 
admit a point before one proceeds to base some argu- 
ment upon this point : a good instance will be found 
on p. 292. 

Questions are also useful for the purpose of excluding 
views which are wrong : a stock instance would be 
"What went ye out for to see?" there comes a list 
of Questions which ' expect ', or rather practically 
contain, the answer f No'. 

A Question may serve as a mark of Emphasis: it 
calls attention to a particular point as deserving special 
attention. It may serve to Emphasise what follows 
very much as a pause might. Being thus a mark of 
Emphasis, it should not be misused : it should not be 
employed where no Emphasis is wanted. 

Open-air preachers are very fond of perpetually asking 
Questions of their audience, trying to keep the attention 
of their audience thus : but then, when the answer 
comes, the point is often found to be quite unimportant. 
This Question-asking becomes a bad habit ; these 
preachers avoid saying anything directly, and always 
lead up to it by a Question : the result is that, when 
they have something which they really ought to 
Emphasise, one of their great means of Emphasis has 
lost its capacity. 

Lastly, Questions introduce a certain amount of 
Variety, and occasionally they form a kind of rest : a 
series of Statements is apt to be somewhat wearying. 

But Questions themselves can be wearying also, and 
can be sinsrularlv unnatural and ' didactic '. Thus the 



2yS HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

stock Question e Who blew what how many times round 
the walls of where ? ' is almost as great a misuse of the 
art of Questioning as the words of the little prig, in the 
old-fashioned " Teacher's Guide " : ' Oh mamma dear, is 
it true that in the year 63 B.C. Marcus Tullius Cicero 
was Consul and spoke against the arch-Anarchist 
Catiline ? ' The Answer of Mamma is ' Yes, my dear ' ; 
it should have been something else. 



CHAPTER LV. OTHER RHETORICAL DEVICES. 



For Rhetorical Devices I must refer to special Books 
on Rhetoric (e.g. Bain's) ; though anyone who really 
' feels ' his Ideas is likely to use the right ' Devices ' as 
naturally as an Orator who really ' feels ' his Ideas is 
likely to use the right expression and 'gestures'. 

We cannot tell how far the greatest Orators intro- 
duced these c artifices ' consciously or instinctively : but, 
supposing that you do not use them instinctively, then 
it may be as well to study their use and to practise 
their use. Demosthenes, Cicero, Burke, and Macaulay, 
might be among the Text-books. 

The means are not to be employed haphazard : to 
use them for a quiet narrative would be a mistake, an 
offence against Appropriateness (p. 243). At first, i.e. 
until the use or non-use becomes half-automatic, you 
will have to be constantly asking yourself, ' Is this 
means necessary or useful just here ? ' 

To distract the attention and emotions by ' Figures 
of Speech', as it were by vivid colouring or minute 
accuracy of detail, to the wrong things or to minor 
points, is a thing to be sedulously avoided. To lash 
oneself into ( Declamation ' over mere trifles, as some 
Satirists have done, belongs more to the province of 
Comedy and Tragedy. The ' habit ' of Declamation 
and Ranting is to be kept under. 
299 



3co HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Among Rhetorical Devices might be classed 
Questions (p. 296), 
Repetitions (p. 216), 
Contrasts (p. 291), 
Comparisons (p. 281). 

Many names are given to the Devices, such as the 
name of ' Similes ', ' Metaphors ', and ' Tropes ' to the 
different kinds of Comparisons. 

Balance, Parallelism, and Antithesis are very common 
Devices. We saw an instance of Balance on p. 215, 
where the 'house on rock' balanced the 'house on 
sand' by way of Contrast. The Psalms are full of 
Parallelisms also, the sense of the first half often being 
equivalent to the sense of the second half. 

' Who will lead me into the strong city : and who will 

bring me into Zion ? ' 
' Hast not thou forsaken us, O God : and wilt not 

thou, O God, go forth with our hosts ? ' 

Indeed, this was an early feature of ' Poetry '. Here 
the correspondence is one of sense, or of mere words. 
Thucydides and Tacitus were very fond of using words 
which seem to be Contrasts, and to balance one another, 
but which really did not do so. 

' Balance ' of Sound of course often appears in Metre, 
and in Rhyme, and in actual Music. The sense of 
Balance and Correspondence leads us to expect and 
wait for certain sounds. The Balance gives satisfaction. 

' Contrast ' in Sounds is a point well worth study. 
We shall soon speak of 'Alliteration' (p. 304), but it 
probably has its opposite, in Sounds that are not in 
the least like one another. 

Besides the Balance or Contrast of Sense, of Words, 






OTHER RHETORICAL DEVICES 301 

of Rhythm, and of Sounds, we may notice Exaggeration 
(or Hyperbole). It abounds in Proverbs, and in the 
New Testament, and indeed among Southern and 
Eastern Nations* generally. See p. 160. 

The Epigram ('his success was built up on the 
most solid foundations, that is, on failures ') is frequently 
in the nature of an Exaggeration. 

1 Interjections ' are another Rhetorical weapon. Carlyle 
should be studied here, as also for his apostrophising 
(e.g. ' O happy king, whom . . . '). 

Unnatural and striking phrases, orders of words, etc., 
were another feature of Carlyle's Rhetoric. 

He also used Humour > generally a severe kind of 
Humour. Humour is to be classed as a Rhetorical 
weapon, and indeed as one of the most powerful. 

Bain gives a good List of Devices in his " Rhetoric and Compo- 
sition ". He mentions, for example, 

Irony, or saying "the contrary of what is meant" (e.g. 'You are 
clever ! ') ; 

Innuendo, or "implying instead of stating plainly"; but this 
cannot be altogether distinguished from the understating of the 
truth, (which is called Meiosis or Litotes), as e.g. in the slang 
expressions 'just a little', and 'rather', meaning 'very much so'. 
1 His honour rooted in dishonour grew, 
and faith unfaithful kept him falsely true ', 
would be an example of verbal Paradox or Oxymoron. 

Climax, i.e. the leading up to the strongest point, is familiar to 
everyone (e.g. ' That deed was great, heroic, godly'). 

Its opposite, Anti-Climax or Bathos, is useful especially when 
one wishes to throw scorn or ridicule upon a person or an idea, 
as in ' he marched, with his armed legions, with the troops whose 
ancestors had won the world, against the fierce Barbarians who 
had defied his power : at length he came within reach of the 
enemy, and began his work in earnest. Single-handed he carried 
it out, and returned to celebrate his triumph in the great Capital. 

* See " The Teaching of Jesus To-day" (Grant Richards). 



302 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Yes, he had done well, and with him alone rested the glory — of 
having picked up a few shells upon the seashore ! 

Among Rhetorical Figures may also be classed such phrases as : — 

'he is a Croesus'' ; 

' he lets the brute get uppermost in him, and lets the angel 
fall 5 ; 

' let not ambition mock their useful toil ' ; 

' Phyllis is my oxHy joy' j 

' I hate red tape ' ; 

' a restless pillow '. 

See further Bain's "Rhetoric, etc.", from which some of the above 
instances are taken. 



CHAPTER LVI. RHYTHM. 



Rhythm, in its wider sense, includes something more 
than mere sound : for instance, there is a certain balance 
of sense as well as a balance of sound. It is often quite 
as important that the sense should correspond as that 
the sound should correspond. We have seen an instance 
on page 215, where the house on rock 'balanced' the 
house on sand. 

But undoubtedly the Music and Rhythm of sound 
alone, in Essaying-writing and Speaking, are quite a 
power in themselves. We could scarcely realise what 
the oratory of Gladstone or Canon Farrar would be 
without its Rhythm. We may well doubt if it would 
then hold its hearers or carry them along. A (Con- 
servative) Member of Parliament once said that he did 
not like listening to Gladstone's Speeches, because they 
so often carried him away and ' convinced ' him without 
giving him any idea as to any particular meaning. He 
said that, even as he read the Speeches in a paper, a 
similar effect was still perceptible. Had he analysed 
thern, and considered the Ideas as Ideas, I doubt if the 
effect would have been anything like this. 

One of the secrets of Rhythm is Variety. This does 
not mean so much that the Rhythm should differ in an 
unscientific way, merely for the sake of difference, but 
that each particular Rhythm should be appropriate to 
its subject. In Poetry there was no poet who could use 
303 



3 o4 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

his Rhythm so well as Vergil. The mere sound of some 
lines has been known to convey the general meaning 
even to those who understood no Latin at all. This is 
really a very great test. In Prose, perhaps De Quincey 
has come as near to this effect as anyone else, and there 
is no doubt that Prose has its metres as well as Poetry. 
Of course Prose has nothing quite so fixed as, for in- 
stance, the Latin Hexameter metre, but yet there is a 
certain metre or Rhythm demanded for certain passages 
and certain positions in the Paragraph or a Sentence : 
Cicero's esse videatur was decidedly a good finish up to 
a sentence. 

The ancient Writers and Orators among the Greeks, 
and among the Romans in their train, paid far more 
attention to the Rhythm than we do. Especially did 
they avoid harshness and jingle, although they were not 
averse to Alliteration. 

Alliteration has a great deal of effect on Rhythm: 
how much effect we seldom realise, because Alliteration 
is not always obvious on the surface. Professor Barrett 
Wendell gives the following quotation, " Quietly rested 
beneath the drums and tramplings of three conquests". 
Here the casual reader may not notice the perfect 
Alliteration, forgetting that t and th and d are all letters 
of the same class, namely Dentals, and that r occurs 
once or twice, and so helps the Alliteration. 

The letters /, b, m, (f), v, all are Labials ; t, d, n, and 
th are Dentals ; k, c, qu, g, ng, and to some extent w are 
Gutturals ; and r and / are Liquids.* It will thus be 
seen that Alliteration is something subtler than the 
mere putting together of a number of words which 
begin with the same letter, as in combinations like 
* See "Plow to learn Philology" (Sonnenschein). 



RHYTHM 305 

' Little Liver Pills', 'Rhyme and Reason ', 'Dead- 
wood Dick's Big Bonanza'. 

A still subtler form of Alliteration, and one little 
studied, is that between Vowels and Consonants. For 
Vowels also can be classed as Gutturals, etc.* A 
special branch of Alliteration would be the Rhyme ; 
and Onomatopoeia may be mentioned also. 

As to general principles, it may be noticed that a 
quick Rhythm is suitable for a quick narrative, espe- 
cially for exciting scenes, and for impassioned oratory, 
whereas the slower Rhythm may be better for a quiet 
narrative, and for calm and logical reasoning. Short- 
ness, again (the Words or the Sentence or both of them 
being short), will be suited for quick narrative and im- 
passioned argument. 

Of course Rhythm can also give the effect of sus- 
pense, and the effect of majesty. 

Striking Ideas, again, can be expressed by a striking 
and unusual Rhythm. 

Closely connected with Rhythm is not only the 
length of the words, but also their origin. The choice 
between a Latin word and an Anglo-Saxon word will 
often make a considerable difference to the Rhythm, 
and the effect on the shortness or length of Sentences 
is considerable. Notice also how a long word at the 
end of a Sentence or Paragraph (p. 262) will do much to 
prevent 'tameness'. The choice between many single 
clauses and single complicated Paragraphs is intimately 
connected with the Rhythm also. 

And so is Punctuation, though Punctuation and 
Rhythm are seldom mentioned together. A badly 
punctuated passage rarely reads well : the unsatis- 

* See "How to Learn Philology'' (Sonnenschein). p. 204. 
X 



306 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

factory feeling which it produces cannot be overcome 
by the otherwise excellent swing. 

As to Practice, the Old Testament, and the New 
Testament in the Authorised Version, will always be 
models for Rhythm ; and almost by their side will 
stand the Translations of the Iliad and Odyssey by 
Butcher and Lang, and by Leaf, Lang, and Myers. 
The New Testament should be analysed, and the 
secrets of its Rhythm should be discovered, especial 
attention being paid to the length of the words, to the 
length of the Sentences, the absence of harshness, and 
the occasional (and often veiled) Alliteration. Not only 
should the passages be copied out, but they should also 
be read out loud. I believe that a Phonograph would be 
a very valuable help, and before long we shall see it 
introduced into Education. 

A word of warning is necessary here. The ancients 
studied Rhythm so carefully that they often took little 
pains to study the sense. The Athenians and the 
Romans listened for the sound and expected it to 
affect them in certain pleasing ways, as music will do, 
and, entranced by this pleasing feeling which it pro- 
duced, and by the emotion which it aroused, they too 
often failed to demand good sense or even truth : they 
sacrificed the Ideas to the Expression. And this is 
what many Writers have done again and again after 
their time, and many Speakers. The criticism passed 
on thousands of Writers and Speakers must be : " Their 
Style is beautiful, but their Ideas are meaningless or 
execrable, and so is the Arrangement of their Ideas ". 

Yet, in spite of its misuse, Rhythm is a factor that 
must not be neglected in Writing and Speaking. Often, 
even when we read to ourselves, we cannot possibly fail 
to notice the Rhythm ; it is bound to affect us. 



RHYTHM 307 

And so, in revising the Composition, we should 
(see p. 330) give one special revision to the Rhythm : 
we should read the Composition out loud so that we 
may study and criticise that alone. And particular 
attention should be paid to the Rhythm at the end of 
every Paragraph and at the very end of the whole Com- 
position, where, as we have seen, it is as a rule bad to 
end with a few short words, and better to end with 
longer words, forming a Rhythm marked by dignity, 
smoothness, and tranquillity. With rare exceptions, it 
is wrong to end up with a quick sharp jerk like this. 



CHAPTER LVII. CHAPTERS 



THE Chapter of a Book may be compared with an 
Essay : like the Essay, it has Paragraphs, Sentences, 
Clauses, and Words. 

But there is a difference : for the Essay may be com- 
plete in itself, even if it suggests problems for research ; 
whereas the Chapter is only a part, and, however im- 
portant a part it may be, and however complete it may 
seem, it should stand in a certain relation to the other 
Chapters or parts. If I may use a Comparison, the 
Essay is like the player of a Single at Lawn-Tennis : 
he plays for himself and by himself. The Chapter is 
like one of a Football team : he should play as well as 
he can so far as his own part is concerned, but he 
should play with reference to the other members of, 
e.g., the Fifteen : he should help them and in turn 
expect their help. If he is a Half-Back, he should 
often ' feed ' the Three-Quarters, but should expect the 
Forwards to help him to get the ball. 

On the one hand, then, the Chapter should be per- 
fect, and should have Unity : it should deal with a 
special subject or aspect of a subject. This might be 
called Specialisation. But, on the other hand, the 
Chapter should be connected with the other Chapters, 
and should lead up to their work, help their work, and 
supplement their work, expecting similar services in 
return. This would be called Scientific Division of 
Labour, or Co-operation. 

308 



CHAPTERS 309 

The Chapter, then, is to the Book very much what 
the Paragraph is to the Chapter, or (to a smaller extent) 
what the Sentence is to the Paragraph, or (to a still 
smaller extent) what the Word is to the Sentence. 

For example, as the length or bulk of a Paragraph 
(when compared with the other Paragraphs) should 
greatly depend upon its importance (the word 'mass' 
is aptly used by Prof. Barrett Wendell), so the length 
of a Chapter (as compared with the other Chapters) 
should greatly depend upon its importance also. 

Again, as the Paragraphs should vary in length, so 
should the Chapters. 

Once again, as the Paragraph should, as a rule, begin 
with what is Interesting (e.g. the scope and subject of 
the Paragraph), or with what will Connect it with the 
previous Paragraph, so the Chapter should, as a rule, 
be guided by a similar Law. 

In fact, the various Principles which we apply to the 
Paragraph should be applied to the Chapter also. 



CHAPTER LVIII. PARAGRAPHS. 



A PARAGRAPH is a part or member of an Essay or a 
Chapter or a Speech. A Paragraph is made up of 
Sentences, and these are made up of Clauses or Words. 
Apart from the relations of the Paragraph to the Essay, 
and of the Paragraph to the Sentence, it is very hard 
to say what the Paragraph is or should be, but a good 
general description would be this. A Paragraph should 
be capable of being summed up in a single Sentence or 
as a single Idea. Professor Wendell's remarks are far 
the best that I have ever read on the subject : he shows 
that, among the best Paragraphs, are those in which 
the first few words and the last few words will give 
the general Idea of the whole. 

The first Paragraph of an Essay should be Interest- 
ing, the last Paragraph should generally be Impressive. 
The middle Paragraphs should be connected with one 
another, that is to say, as a general rule, each should be 
a link between the one before and the one after. This 
does not mean that the last Sentence of one Para- 
graph should necessarily be linked to the first Sentence 
in the next, and the last Sentence in this to the first 
Sentence in the next, and so on : for the Connexion 
can come in the middle. It is possible to write an 
Essay or make a Speech of twenty Paragraphs, such 
that each Paragraph shall have an Interesting Be- 
ginning and an Impressive Ending, and the Connexion 



PARAGRAPHS 311 

between each Paragraph and the next shall come in 
the middle of the Paragraph : in other words, as we 
read a fresh Paragraph we shall be Interested in its 
Beginning, but perhaps we shall not see its Connexion 
with what has been said before until we come near to 
the middle of it. 

But it would be a mistake to arrange a whole Essay 
or Speech on this plan : here as elsewhere there must 
be Variety. Sometimes the Beginning should be 
Interesting (see p. 258), sometimes the Ending should 
be Impressive ; but at other times the Ending of one 
Paragraph and the Beginning of the next need not be 
impressive and interesting, but may merely be (see 
p. 263) linked together in some way or another. 

Each Beginning should, as far as is possible, arouse 
the attention, but there should also be as much Variety 
as is feasible ; the Ending should never be tame, and it 
should never be of such a kind that you can cut it off 
without losing anything from the sense. Frequently 
it is true that, the greater the Climax, the better the 
Paragraph. The Latins were particularly careful to 
avoid Endings of a tame or unnecessary kind : they 
often kept their Verb till the end of a Sentence, so 
that, until the last word had been spoken, you could 
not say that the sense was really finished. Nevertheless 
they broke through this rule for the sake of Clearness, 
Emphasis, Interest, Variety, or even Connexion. 

Not only should there be Variety in the Beginnings 
and Endings, but the length should be varied also : some 
Paragraphs should be longer and others shorter (p. 247). 
Much will depend upon the importance of the Idea which 
lies inside the Paragraph. If it is very important, then 
the Paragraph should as a rule be long : among other 



312 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

reasons, it may have to contain Repetition, Comparisons, 
and Contrasts : this in itself will make the Paragraph 
longer. Nevertheless, a Paragraph of a very short 
kind is often even more impressive than a very long 
Paragraph. One of the most impressive in the whole 
of literature is a Paragraph or Sentence of two words, 
" Jesus wept ". On the average, and for ordinary 
purposes, short Paragraphs are better than long. 

We said at the beginning that the Paragraph should 
often admit of being summed up in a single Sentence, 
or as a single Idea: so that, besides the Beginning the 
Ending and the length, which must secure Interest, 
(often) Impressiveness, Connexion, and Variety, four 
great principles of Composition, we have to consider the 
fifth principle, namely, Unity. Anything which throws 
light on that Idea (e.g. the details on p. 212) will not 
violate the Law of Unity ; whereas anything which 
goes apart from that Idea and outside it but does not 
throw light upon it, nor yet serve as a Connecting 
link between that Idea and another, will violate the 
Law of Unity. It will be seen, then, that the principle 
really is to some extent Economy: we must cut off 
whatever is unnecessary, that is to say unnecessary and 
inappropriate to the Idea of the Paragraph. 

For the use of the Resitmee, in case we are forced to 
digress, see p. 266. 

Such are a few of the principles with regard to 
Paragraphs : for further details the Reader is referred 
to Barrett Wendell's book on English Composition, 
which will supplement what I say here. 

As to the writing-out of Paragraphs, it is a good 
rule, especially if they are to be Type-written or printed 
afterwards, to write out each on a separate piece of 



PARAGRAPHS 313 

paper, at any rate for the rough copy. A friend of mine, 
who has done a good deal of Writing, told me that he 
had to write the first three pages of one of his Essays 
over and over again (I forget how many times) ; and 
this must be a very common experience. He said that, 
after much experience, he had taken to using scissors 
and paste and cutting out that which he did not wish to 
alter. Obviously he had made two faults : first, he 
had not prepared his Essay, or at least he had not 
prepared it on a good plan (e.g.. by the " Card- System"), 
and secondly he did not know of the value of writing 
out each Paragraph on a separate piece of paper. Yet 
the value is obvious. 

When you have three Paragraphs on a single sheet of 
paper, if you have to re-write the second one, this would 
naturally entail the re-writing of the first and the third 
as well, if my principle were not adopted. A Publisher 
once told me that it would be misleading for the 
Printers ; but this is quite wrong, as I know from 
experience, if you give them clear instructions to the 
contrary ; for, as we shall see on page 378, before any- 
thing is sent to be Type-written or printed, instructions 
should be given which are to apply to the whole of 
the Composition ; and it was a great error to suppose 
that Printers like to have a large page full of writing : 
in fact once, when printers were doing some things for 
me in a hurry, they actually cut up my manuscript 
almost into shreds. 

Two more words may be said here. 

Each Paragraph should begin a little inland, a little 
to the right of the left-hand side of the page, so that 
the reader may easily see where the fresh Paragraph 
begins ; this is called Indentation and is most important: 



314 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS'. STYLE 

many books have so slight an Indentation that they 
look almost as if each Chapter were one single Para- 
graph. 

On page 362 I said that an Analysis might be given 
in the margin of a Book or Essay, or else a Scheme 
might be kept quite separate : perhaps the best way 
would not only be to do the Scheme before you do the: 
Essay, and perhaps to give it up with the Essay, but 
to do the Analysis in the margin after you have done 
the Essay, so that you may not only see where you 
violated the Law of Unity (p. 250), but may also show 
the reader the contents of each Paragraph, in case he 
wishes to look back and read any part over again. 

As practice for improving Paragraphs in various 
ways, it might be as well to study those of the best 
Reviews, such as the "Nineteenth Century" or the 
"North American Review", and to Analyse the Para- 
graphs, making notes of their Beginnings, their Endings, 
their Length, their Unity, and their Variety. Occasion- 
ally you might write a short Paragraph or two, for 
instance to local Papers, if you can find anything that 
they are likely to put in. 



CHAPTER LIX. SENTENCES, 



THE units in a Sentence are Clauses and Words. Of 
course Sentences vary very greatly from, one another: 
one may have a single Clause, another may have two 
Clauses side by side, joined together by some word like 
' and ' or ' but ', and another may have a Period made up 
of several Clauses. For instance " he went " would be 
a single Clause ; ' he went and saw ', would be two 
Clauses side by side (or Co-ordinated) ; " he went in 
order that he might see" would be one Clause as a 
Principal Clause, to which the other is Subordinate and 
on which it is Dependent. 

We have seen that a Book is composed of Chapters, 
that each Chapter, which may be something like an 
Article or Essay, is composed of Paragraphs, that the 
Paragraph is composed of Sentences, and that the 
Sentences may be composed of Clauses, and that the 
Clause is composed of Words. We have seen also that 
for the Chapter and Paragraph and Sentence and Clause 
certain general principles hold good* Some of these 
general principles will be applied here to a Sentence. 

First of all, the Sentence is to some extent a single 
thing or Unity, a complete whole, which should admit 
of being summed up as a single Idea. 

But, though it is complete in itself, to some extent it 
is also helped by other Sentences, and it helps them in 
tarn. Just as each person is dependent on other 
315 



3i6 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

persons, and helps them, and is helped by them, even 
while to some extent he lives his own life, so it is with 
Sentences. Each is not merely an Individual, but also 
a member of a whole, of which other Individuals (his 
' neighbours ') are members also. 

The Connexion between one Sentence and the one 
before it, and the one after it, is not wont to be much 
studied by itself. Attention is so often fixed on the 
Grammar and on the Vocabulary that little of it is left 
for the order of Sentences and their relation to one 
another. But of these relations we have already spoken 
in the Chapter on Connexion. 

The Order of Words in a Sentejice is now studied far 
more carefully than it used to be. The natural Order 
(as in ' he goes ') is the Subject and then the Predicate. 
The Predicate may consist of a Verb, an Object, and 
an Adverb : for instance, ' he did it well ' illustrates all 
these. But this is not the only type of Sentence : some 
Sentences have no Subject or no Predicate expressed, 
e.g. Exclamations. 

There are many deviations from the above order : thus, 
in f this man was Julius Caesar ', the subject comes last ; 
sometimes the Adverb or the Object may come first. 

The Order of Words will depend partly on the topic, 
partly on the aim of the Writer, partly on the need for 
Variety, and Interest, and partly on the Connexion of 
the Sentence with other Sentences, and the Connexion 
of its various parts with one another, and partly on 
Emphasis. 

This Connexion of the parts of a Sentence with one 
another deserves special attention : those parts which ai'e 
most closely connected with one another in meaning should 
be closely connected in order also. 



SENTENCES 317 

Professor Meiklejohn, in his "Art of Writing English" 
(p. 277 foil.), gives some very useful Instances of bad 
order, e.g. 

'Five pounds reward is offered for the discovery of 
any person injuring this property by order of the chief 
of police '. 

* This monument was erected to the memor}^ of John 
Smith, who was shot, as a mark of affection by his 
brother '. 

I offer a few other instances : most Public Notices 
should be carefully studied from this point of view ! 

' The Reader in Comparative * * ology will be glad 
to see any students who think of reading for Section E 
of Part II. of the Classical Tripos at his rooms in 
* # * * College between 10 and 11 on any of the 
following days: Saturday June 10, Saturday June 17, 
and Monday June 19.' 

1 The love which, perchance, follows some when they 
are dead to that place where a human testimony will 
not be in vain.' 

' In the last two passages it is to be noticed that the 
mistakes in the order of words can often be remedied by 
Punctuation. ' The effect of walking on the heart and 
lungs ' reads very badly, and, if the Construction is not 
changed to ' the effects which walking has on the heart 
and lungs ', the words may be punctuated thus : ■ the 
effect, of walking, on the heart and lungs ' : the order 
of words does not here strike one as being so wrong : 
at any rate the proper meaning is clear. The very 
severest test of the right order will be the removing of all 
stops : it is too severe a test and one which legal docu- 
ments and Latin will stand, but which very few ordinary 
■English writings will stand. 



318 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Another common fault, besides that of putting a 
word in its wrong place in a Sentence, is that of 
using the same word in different senses : but for this, 
and others, I must refer to such works as Professor 
Meiklejohn's. 

We have seen above that the most important parts 
of a Sentence are the Beginning and the Ending. In 
the Beginning will often come that which will link the 
Clause with the Clause which comes before. The 
Ending should not be tame — often a long word will 
do much to redeem the tameness — but should as a 
rule give something without which the Sentence is not 
quite complete. As a rule the reader should be listen- 
ing and waiting for the Ending, his interest and attention 
being kept up till the Sentence is actually finished. 
Another common Ending, however, is one which pre- 
pares for the next Sentence, and which is a link between 
the two Sentences. 

So we see that, besides the natural order of words, at 
least two principles are to be considered : — 

first, Emphasis, which e.g. may make the Subject come 
at the end, or the Object at the beginning ; 

secondly, the Connexion of a Sentence with the 
Sentence before and the Sentence after. 

Yet another principle would be Economy, the cutting 
out of what is unnecessary ; but of this we have spoken 
on p. 239. 

As to the length of Sentences, it should vary very 
considerably, partly to ensure Variety and Change and 
to prevent monotony ; partly also for the sake of Pro- 
portion, an important Sentence often being longer than 
one which is unimportant ; but, partly also accordi7ig to 
the subject and the ' mood ', rapid and exciting descrip- 



SENTENCES 319 

tions and passionate arguments requiring shorter Sen- 
tences than quiet descriptions and quiet arguments. 

A series of 'loose' Clauses, following on one another 
without Conjunctions, is best for exciting and (certain) 
emotional passages ; such a series with Conjunctions 
(e.g. ' and ', ' for ', ' but ') will be less c excited ', but still 
may be good for rapidity ; the compact Period, how- 
ever, especially when the climax, the main Clause, is 
reserved till the end, and when there are Subordinate 
Clauses (like these last two Clauses) by which the interest 
and suspense are kept up, may be better for quieter 
narrative and quieter argument. The ' suspense ' should 
not be overdone : if there is any danger of this, sum up 
the gist in a few short sharp words at the end. 

There is another point also to be noted about Sen- 
tences, and that is their Construction. A Sentence may 
be put in many forms, such as (see p. 273) Abstract and 
Concrete and very Concrete. 

Again (see p. 253) we may have a Statement, a Ques- 
tion, an Exhortation, or an Exclamation. The Writer 
or Speaker often has to choose which form he will use, 
and here again he must be guided by the subject he 
is writing about, by his aim, and by his readers or 
hearers. In oratory he will be far more inclined to 
use Questions and Exclamations and Exhortations. 

As safe general rules about Sentences, one might 
say ' Keep them rather short usually, but occasionally 
vary their length and vary their characteristics : connect 
them one with another ; and, while ending the Sentence 
itself, pay great attention to the order of the Words 
and to the length of the Words. 



CHAPTER LX. GRAMMAR OR SYNTAX. 



It is not the purpose of this Book to say much about 
Grammar (Syntax). But one rule is worth bearing in 
mind constantly, and that is : KEEP ON THE SAFE SIDE. 

While you do not sacrifice Clearness or Simplicity, 
avoid what would call down the criticism of the strictest 
critic, or even of the grossest pedant. If you can, you 
had better steer clear of criticism. 

Hundreds of critics get a reputation for accuracy 
because they insist on some ' rule ', as they call it. 
They may be quite forgetful or ignorant of the fact that 
the language may be changing — that what was a 
' rule ' fifty years ago is ceasing to or has ceased to 
be a 'rule' to-day. Prof. Barrett Wendell justly calls 
attention to the fact that a great deal of what was not 
' Good Use ' some time ago, is becoming or has become 
' Good Use ' to-day. Fashions change. , 

Now among the growing Constructions of to-day, 
which will probably grow over and under and through 
the severe critic's wall, several are especially noticeable, 
viz. 

(i) 'He was going to just look inside', which is called 
a ' Split Infinitive '. ' To ' and ' look ', says the critic, 
must come together, and must not be divided by an 
Adverb. Nevertheless I prophesy that before another 
century has passed some 'Split Infinitives' (not all) will 
be as 'regular' as 'that he might just look inside'. The 



GRAMMAR OR SYNTAX 321 

Analogy of this latter Construction is almost bound to 
be at work. This will be so because masses of educated 
people have felt the Construction to be natural, and 
in spite of the fact that critics tell them it is wrong. 
Anyone who studies Historical Grammar will find our 
language full of such Analogies. Thus ' under the cir- 
cumstances', which sounds so familiar and so natural, was 
once wrong : and even now (p. 207) the critics pounce 
on it. But are the critics to lay down a law, admit- 
ting ' under the conditions ' but forbidding the Analogical 
Construction c under the circumstances ', though ' circum- 
stances ' no longer mean simply 'things that stand 
around' (circumstantia) ? We shall probably live to 
see the millions push many a Construction into ' Good 
Use ', unless the critics exert their every effort against 
this perfectly natural tendency to Analogies. 

(ii) We can say : ' Seeing that this is so, it may 
be said . . . ', for ' seeing that ' has become almost 
equivalent to an indeclinable ' since '. But how often 
we read : ' Knowing the truth of this, it is obvious that 
the following holds good '. The ' free ' Participle in 
-ing is also a growing Construction. I read in a Daily 
Paper " My house was struck a few years ago, taking 
off the roof." 

Now in all these cases, where there is a doubt, keep 
on the safe side, and say : ' He was going just to look 
inside ', * Knowing the truth of this, we see clearly that 
the following holds good ', ' A few years ago the 
lightning struck my house, taking off the roof. 

The other ways are not yet ' Good Use '. Till they 
are, avoid them. 

(iii) The commonest source of error is what may- 
be called Blending or Contamination. 



322 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

" He supplies no plan of the Pompeian house, and 
does not mention the upper story which remains in one 
of them " appears in a well-known Paper. If the writer 
had said " he supplies no plans of Pompeian houses 
... of them ", or " he supplies no plan of the Pompeian 
house ... in one of the samples ", he would not have 
been criticised ; but, as a matter of fact, he here blends 
these two Constructions, and the result, the Mongrel 
as it were, is so natural that few would notice anything 
wrong as they read the whole paragraph. 

To show how common the tendency is, and how 
natural the result appears, I suggest a few instances 
for the reader to consider : let him find the two regular 
Constructions of which each of the following Construc- 
tions is a Blend or Contamination.* 

i. "The subject is rarely handled in books, and 
still less rarely from the pulpit." (This is, I think, the 
only mistake of language, in the whole of that book). 

2. " The house . . . was in the best condition of 
any . . ." 

3. " The subject is of less importance in their 
estimation to the handling." 

4. " Ah ! there was ' side ' amongst the conquerors 
in those days, just as Baron de Browne or Smythe puts 
on now with their subordinates." 

[The three last passages are from a single Novel 
by a well-known writer : 4 contains two ' Contamina- 
tions ']. 



* See " How to Learn Philology " (Sonnenschein), pp. 69-70. 145. 



GRAMMAR OR SYNTAX 323 

1. ' still less often ' + ' still more rarely ' ; 

2. ' in the best condition of all ' + ' in a better con- 
dition than any' ; 

3. ' is of less importance than . . .' ' yields, in respect 
of its importance, to . . .' ; 

4. 'just as B. or S. puts on side' + ' just like the side 
which B. or S. puts on ' ; 

c B. or S. puts on with his subordinates ' + ' B. and S. 
put on with their subordinates '. 

I could quote thousands of examples, but these will 
suffice : the Construction is ' wrong ' in itself, but is a 
mixture of two Constructions which are both ' right '. 

' He didn't make more mistakes than he could help ' 
is a ' Contamination ' which not one in a million would 
notice : in fact, it has become ' Good Use '. It will 
surprise the reader to find, when he analyses the words, 
that 'than he could not help' would be more accurate, 
technically. Mr. G. A. Falk called my attention to this 
instance. 

1 Whom say ye that I am ? ' is another case where 
I Good Use ' would probably lend her queenly sanction. 

(iv) "A bachelor's room, who was fond of shelves". 
Here the order of words is unsatisfactory : ' the room 
of a bachelor . . .' would be all right. 

Whenever you come across such mistakes in your 
reading, stop and correct them by (a) changing the 
Construction (this is generally easy), and, if possible, by 
(b) changing the order of Words. But alter as little 
as possible : this will make the Exercise the very best 
practice. 



CHAPTER LXI. WORDS, OR VOCABULARY. 



I SHALL say little here, except that what Prof. Barrett 
Wendell calls ' Good Use ' is to be considered, i.e. what 
is recognised not by one good writer only but by the 
generality of good writers at the time being. For 
4 Good Use ' varies. 

But here, as in the sphere of Syntax, I would say 
KEEP ON THE SAFE SIDE. There may be some slang 
word which has almost become part of the Literary 
Language of to-day : but, unless you are an ' Authority ', 
you had better wait, and use an older and safer word. 

This does not apply universally. If, for example, 
you are writing a Novel, it is ' inappropriate ' to make 
all your characters speak in the same style, as Scott 
does. The Coster and the Cockney have Dialects 
of their own, and it would be unfair to accuse them 
of speaking as if they were Penny-a-liners. 

Flaubert used to take enormous pains over his Vo- 
cabulary, so that it should be not only pure (i.e. free 
from slang and from whatever was not ' Good Use '), 
but also the exact expression of his meaning and not 
of any other meaning. The words must convey one 
Idea clearly, and one Idea only. 

Of Obscurity I need not speak here : I shall simply 

refer to p. 228 foil., where I show how the Technical 

and Abstract terms account for a good deal. The 

Double Entendre also (intentional or unintentional) is too 

324 



WORDS, OR VOCABULARY 325 

familiar to need much illustration. Supposing that 
" Money returned if not satisfactory " followed an Ad- 
vertisement for some Cure, then, when people demanded 
back their money, it might be answered that "the money 
was quite satisfactory". A certain orator's speeches were 
full of Sentences which either had no clear meaning or 
had two possible meanings. Of course there are occa- 
sions where a Double Entendre is intended, and there- 
fore ' appropriate ' to the Writer's aim. 

If only for the sake of the jingle of sound, it is well 
to avoid that common error of first using a word and 
then, directly afterwards, again using it [or some word 
of the same family] in a different sense, as in ' We 
cannot make out why he makes this distinction ', ' he 
felt that there was no ill-feeling '. 

An undoubted difficulty is to steer between Tautology 
and needless Variety. I have purposely left pp. 310-31 1 
just as I had dictated them, so that the reader may 
notice the bad effect of the repetition of the word 
1 Paragraph '. For a specimen of the reverse — a change 
of words where the idea is unchanged — see p. 254. This 
example also deserves study : — 

" Every quality that is requisite in a man to make 
him completely and honourably prosperous is necessary 
to entire success in the games of boys ". 

A needless alteration in the Construction of a 
Parallel or Balancing Clause (p. 292), or in the Subject 
of a Sentence, is also to be avoided. It is here that 
a Classical Education is almost bound to tell. 

For Latin and Anglo-Saxon Words, see pp. 244, 305. 



CHAPTER LXI'I. WRITING, SPELLING, 
AND PUNCTUATION. 



I SHALL only offer a few notes here, and shall refer 
to the Books which deal with these subjects. 

As to Writing, it should above all things be clear 
and legible, with enough space between the words and 
between the lines. The latter is the more important 
in one way, viz. that it is easier to insert additions if 
the lines are further apart. Lately I have taken to 
writing (for the Press) on every other line instead of 
on every line. There should also be Margins (see 
p. 362). 

Type-writing (see p. 369) is becoming more and more 
commonly used, and for certain purposes it is indispen- 
sable. But here also spaces should be left between 
the lines, as well as Margins at the sides and bottoms 
of the pages. 

Fresh Paragraphs should begin to the right, i.e. a little 
inland. 

For the question of Underlining, see p. 270 ; and ; for 
the Marginal Analysis, p. 362. 

As to Capital Letters, it will probably be thought 
that this Book has far too many : at any rate, I think it 
marks almost the extreme limit to which one may go. 

The position of ilie body while you are writing is a 

matter of very great importance. I do most of my 

MSS. (and of my work generally) standing at >a high 

desk. For details I must refer to " The Training of 

326 



WRITING, SPELLING, AND PUNCTUATION 327 

the Body" (Swan Sonnenschein).* Here I will just 
mention that, if one is sitting, the seat should have 
a back and should not be too narrow, nor should it be 
too far from the table or desk. The paper should be 
fair and square before one and should not go across 
to either side, but the desk itself should slope down 
towards you. Be sure to have a good light, rather 
behind you and to the left. 

Do not sit for too long at a time, but walk about, 
or work standing, for a change. I like to do some work 
sitting, some standing, and some lying down. Much 
depends on the subject. It is worth while to notice that 
one can do some subjects better in certain positions than 
in others (and at certain times of the day also). 

Of course it is a mistake to work directly after a 
heavy meal, for then the blood is needed in the 
digestive organs and should not be drawn away from 
them to the brain. But it is also a great mistake to 
work hard directly after severe exercise, or to take 
severe exercise directly after hard work. Intervals of 
gentle exercise (such as walking, or kicking about) are 
quite a different thing : they may help the brain-work 
very considerably. 

Spelling. 

Here ' Good l T se ' is most important and also the 
principle of keeping to the safe side. Such spellings 
as c develop ', ' labor ', etc., are growing upon us rapidly : 
are they 'correct' yet, or do they still have a soupcon 
of America such as the severest English critics object to? 
If so, then at present ' develope ' and ' labour ' are safer. 

Only let us remember that fashions do change. 

*. In the press. 



328 HOW TO EXPRESS IDEAS: STYLE 

Punctuation deserves a little volume to itself. 

To say that a piece of Composition should be clear 
even if one removes the stops is to demand too much: 
yet to write such a piece is excellent practice, and of 
course in Latin this test may constantly be applied. 

As it is, Punctuation is a great help to clearness 
(see p. 317), and to Emphasis (cp. esp. the Note of 
Exclamation). 

The commonest Faults are the following. 

(i) Too few Commas : — 

'And when he had said this, he lay down' is a type 
of Sentence where I should prefer to punctuate 

'And, when he had said this, he lay down '. 

But there are many who prefer the former method. 

In the following instance, a Comma should most 
certainly have been inserted after ' can ', c We who can 
go to the country ', and probably after ' we ' also. I may 
remark that, for a Sentence like ' Those who can, go 
to the country ', neither this Punctuation, nor this with 
an extra Comma after ' those ', nor the absence of 
Commas, gives an altogether satisfactory result. It 
is something like the choice between ' The cause is 
sheep ' and ' the cause are sheep '. A change is needed, 
e.g. to ' sheep are the cause '. 

Another doubtful case is where there is a ' triplet ' : 
some prefer to write 

' his father, mother and children . . .' 

Personally, unless the 'mother' and 'children' are 
meant to go more closely together than the ' father ' and 
* mother', I should write 

' his father, mother, and children . .' 



WRITING, SPELLING, AND PUNCTUATION '329 

Now, suppose we go on to say 

' his father, mother, and children (,) were at the station 
to meet him ', 

shall we put a Comma after ' children ', or not ? This 
again is a vexed question. There was one learned 
English Professor who would have always written 

1 his father mother and children were at the station to 
meet him '. 

(ii) Commas instead of Semicolons. 

(iii) Colons or Semicolons instead of Full Stops. 

(iv) Too many Notes of Exclamation. 

(v) Omission of the Note of Interrogation, ?, especially 
after a long Sentence. 

(vi) One Printer's fad that I can never understand is 
the order of the underlined marks in such a Sentence as 

"Where is he going?" ''Oh, he is going to the 
' Parks/ to meet his cousin." 

Why should we have 'Parks,' and not 'Parks', ? Some 
Printers almost invariably alter my MSS., but I cannot 
believe that the custom has a scientific basis. 

Correct Punctuation can be best practised in Letter- 
writing, or in the correction of Letters which have been 
written by others. 



CHAPTER LXIII. REVISIONS. 



1. It is needless to say that others will generally be 
able to Revise your Compositions better than you will, 
if you are willing to let them do so and if they are 
willing also. 

2. But, if you are going to Revise them for yourself, 
be sure to leave as long an interval as possible ; for, 
after an interval, what you have written will become 
something alien to you, as it were, and you will be able 
to read it more impartially. Besides this, new Ideas 
may have been thought out in the meanwhile, and 
unconsciously you will have corrected certain faults. 

3. While Revising, you must think of your Compo- 
sition as if it were the work of your deadliest enemy, 
and criticise it very severely. 

4. The Ideas, that is to say, the Headings and Sub- 
Headings, should have been Revised already before the 
Composition is written out. In fact, all the Collection, 
etc., of Ideas will have been finished before you Write 
a word, except perhaps the Beginning and the Ending. 

It remains for you therefore to criticise and Revise 
the Expression of Ideas ; and at first you must not do 
this by a single process. This is why I use the word 
Revisions instead of the word Revision, for there are 
many things to be Revised, and they cannot all be 
considered at once. It would be too much to expect 
that anyone would Revise his Composition, let us say, 
330 



REVISIONS 331 

ten times, looking out for something fresh each time : 
for instance, looking out at one time for ' Obscurity \ 
at another for Prolixity, at another for Dulness, at another 
for Want of Connexion, and so on. But there are one 
or two points of view which should be treated separately. 

5. You should read the Essay or Speech aloud, if you 
can, with a view to correcting the Rhythm; and a 
special Revision might also be given to the Grammar 
and Punctuation, and perhaps even to the choice of 
Words. 

So a really important piece of Composition will have 
to be Revised at least four or five times. 



Part IV. 



PART IV. HOW TO TEACH, LEARN, 

AND PRACTISE COMPOSITION: 
WITH GENERAL HINTS. 



CHAPTERS PAGE 

LXIV. How to Correct Compositions . 335 

LXV. How to Teach Composition . . . 337 

LXVI. Aims of Teaching . ... 345 

LXVII. How to Practise , . 347 

LXVI 1 1. How to Read . . . . 352 

LXIX. How to Learn from Lectures, Speeches, 

Etc. . . . • 35 8 

LXX. General Hints and Helps . . . 360 



CHAPTER LXIV. HOW TO CORRECT 
COMPOSITIONS. 



The pupil benefits little if the Teacher simply takes a 
'general impression' of an Essay, and says that the 
Essay is worth so many marks, or reaches a certain 
standard. This may produce quite a fair estimate of 
the Essay, in fact in some cases it may give the very 
best idea of the relative merits of a number of Essays, 
but for the pupil himself it is next door to useless. 

Nor is it much good to underline individual mistakes, 
and yet to fail to point out why they are mistakes, 
what is the principle underlying them, and how the 
mistakes might have been avoided. 

Unless the Teacher has the natural gift of Correcting 
Essays, he must analyse the Essay, in order to criticise 
the Ideas and their Arrangement. But it is much better 
that this should be done by the Essay- Writer himself, 
and that the Scheme should be given in together with 
the Essay. 

The first thing to do will be to criticise the Ideas 
(see p. 54), e.g. their Collection, Selection, Proportion, 
and Arrangement ; and then to criticise their Expres- 
sion, for instance to call attention to the obscurity of 
the language, its monotony, its harshness of Rhythm. 

With each individual fault should be pointed out 
the underlying principle : the fault should be Corrected 
(if possible) by the Essay-Writer himself, and, above 
335 



336 HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

all, he should be made to take Notes of his commonest 
faults, and he should be told the best Exercises by 
which he may amend them. 

A special Note-book might be kept in which the mistakes 
would be written down under their Headings, for instance 
under such Headings as Clearness (or Obscurity). With 
each mistake should be noted what the mistake is, why 
it has been made, and what would have been better, or 
(to put it in the language of School-books) what would 
have been the right answer. 

The attention of -each individual pupil should be 
devoted to Exercises on those special points in which 
he is weakest. He should be made to correct a number 
of faults of the same kind in the Compositions of others. 
A teacher of thirty pupils very seldom remembers that, 
in the thirty Compositions, he will probably have 
examples of nearly every kind of mistake, and that he has 
at hand a number of Exercises in criticism, which he 
may with great advantage set before his pupils, while 
the subject is still fresh in their minds. 

The Teacher should not leave too long an interval 
between the writing -out and the correction of the 
Essay : he should correct it while the pupil still 
remembers it. 

A good plan is to make a Class practise Speaking, 
either after or without preparation : those who are not 
Speaking should note the faults, and each Speech should 
be criticised directly after it is finished. The Teacher 
can be at hand to see fair play, and to supervise and 
direct. Notes should be made by each Speaker, after 
the criticism. The subjects should of course be of 
interest to the pupils. 



CHAPTER LXV. HOW TO TEACH COMPOSITION. 



There are many reasons why Books and Teachers so 
often fail to Teach. 

First of all they may be too fond of abstract phrases, 
and may not suggest nearly enough examples and 
instances to make their meaning clear. I have (on 
purpose) left an instance of this on page 178 : it will be 
found that what I have written there is not nearly so 
clear as it would have been if I had given examples. 

Teachers and Books frequently omit to explain the 
subject as a whole, and to show how extraordinarily 
difficult it is. They plunge straight into the intricacies 
of the subject, as if it were likely to be as simple to 
the pupil as it is to the Teachers. 

Such Teachers will not at the outset lay any firm 
foundations on which to base their later teaching. 
They do not pay attention to each difficulty of the 
subject in turn, so as to concentrate their attention on 
each part of the subject in turn : rather, they spend their 
time as it were in polisliing the surface. 

Again, I have noticed many Teachers at the Uni- 
versity who have criticised, in precisely the same way, 
• the scholar who is likely to get a First Division of the 
First Class, and the scholar who will be only too thank- 
ful if he scrapes into the Third Division of the Third 
Class. The polishing of the surface, and the attempt 
to remove little tiny faults or blemishes, may be quite 
Z 337 



338 HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

appropriate for the already skilful and advanced pupil, 
but for the beginner such a polishing is quite out of 
place. It would be equally wrong to begin the details 
of a picture before you have sketched its outlines. 

Once again, Books and Teachers seldom point out the 
real interest and value of the subject. They begin to 
Teach at once, whereas they ought first of all to show 
that the subject is worth teaching : either they do not 
realise its importance themselves, or, if they do, they 
do not insist on their pupils realising it also. 

One great branch of Teaching they too often exclude : 
they do not give the pupil nearly enough criticism to 
do. We enjoy rinding fault with someone else ; and, so 
long as this habit of criticism is kept within due limits, 
it is not only a good method of learning, but is also 
indispensable as a habit to be carried into every depart- 
ment of life. A pupil should certainly spend a great 
deal of his time in finding out and correcting faults in 
the work of others : those who would refuse to work 
hard in any other way can thus be made to take an 
interest in the subject at once. Give a boy a bad piece 
of Composition, and tell him that he is to be the critic 
and to find out the faults in it, and to show why these 
faults are faults, and the boy will not fail to learn a 
great deal. As it is, he does not take nearly as much 
interest in his work because he is always trying some- 
thing himself and seeing his faults called failures. 

More generally speaking, every pupil should be made 
not only to criticise and correct, but also occasionally to 
Teach. In learning, there is nothing, absolutely nothing, 
that can take the place of the attempt to Teach others. 
It ought to be made an integral part of the Class-work, 
at any rate in the higher Classes, that each pupil in turn 



HOW TO TEACH COMPOSITION 339 

should Teach the form for a short time every week or 
even every day, and then should be criticised by the 
rest of the form. It will be the master's duty to see 
that the criticism is fair and not unkind. The boy who 
is to give an account of the subject to nearly thirty 
boys, of about his own age, will be almost sure to be 
put upon his mettle and to do his level best. He will 
not be keen to make a fool of himself, and he may even 
get answers ready for the criticisms which may be made. 
The rest of the boys will be kept awake by this, far 
more easily than if the master went on talking and asking 
questions the whole time. 

There is not time to mention all the faults of 
Teaching, but a certain one cannot be passed over, and 
that is that the pupils are not given nearly enough 
choice. Very often one single subject is set for an 
Essay, and that subject is supremely uninteresting or 
unpractical, perhaps for every single pupil : occasionally, 
at any rate, the pupil should be allowed to choose his 
own subject absolutely freely, or else within certain 
limits. He may (see p. 14) select out of a large list. 

Teachers have undoubtedly many difficulties to con- 
tend against ; most of them find little time for special 
work with individual pupils ; a great many of them have 
never learnt the subject themselves : having done it 
more or less by the light of nature, they either still do it 
badly themselves, or else do it well enough but without 
the ghost of a notion as to how a beginner should set 
about doing it. It is not too sweeping a statement 
that in England few Teachers know how to Teach 
anything, except the art of being true gentlemen 
and true ' sportsmen'. Teaching does not come to most 
by nature, and it has not come to them by art. Of 



34o HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

all subjects, Essay- Writing is that which they most 
lamentably fail to Teach. 

The Examination- System throughout our country is 
about as useless for Teaching purposes as it could well 
be. Let us consider how valuable it might easily be. We 
may take for granted that in an Examination the person 
does his best, that is to say, the incentive of getting 
marks (or whatever it is) makes him put forth every 
effort. We may therefore presume that his work is 
nearly as good as effort can make it, and yet what 
happens to his written work, presumably his very best 
work, when it has been looked over and marked ? In 
nine hundred and ninety-nine cases out of a thousand the 
work is never looked at again. This error is singularly 
stupid, for, if the papers were taken and if they were 
gone through and corrected soon afterwards by the 
Teacher with the pupil, they could be made a most 
splendid means of pointing out the faults as well as 
the merits. Every Examination Paper that is worth 
the name should not only be answered, but should be 
gone through afterwards ; then the right answers should 
be given and learnt, and the wrong answers corrected. 

Only a few more suggestions can be offered here, and 
for details I must refer to the Chapter on ' How to 
Correct '. 

At the very outset the difficulties of the subject should 
be explained, and also the various processes which are 
involved ; thus in Essay-Writing the pupil should be 
made to understand the difficulty of Collecting Ideas, 
and then of Selecting and Rejecting, and then of 
Underlining the important Ideas, and then of Ar- 
ranging the Ideas. He should be made to feel that 
all the processes are very hard, even when taken sepa- 



HOW TO TEACH COMPOSITION 341 

rately. He should also be made to feel the difficulties 
of Expressing Ideas, and this should include the diffi- 
culty of Clearness, Emphasis, Variety, Rhythm, and 
so on. 

He should also be told why the subject and all its 
processes are interesting, and why they are valuable, not 
only for Essay-writing, but also (e.g. see p. 400) for 
other purposes as well. 

Then he should have Exercises on these various sepa- 
rate processes, one at a time : e.g. for Comparisons he 
should have at least three different classes of Exercises 
(see p. 289). The Exercises might take these forms : — 

(1) What things do you understand best? The 
answer will perhaps be some Game or form of 
Athletics. 

(2) What lessons can you draw from this Game 
(or whatever it is that you understand well) ? The 
answers will perhaps be ' obedience to the Captain's 
orders', etc. (pp. 289-290). 

(3) Find something which you know well, and which 
will illustrate the following principles : — Co-operation, 
Division of Labour, etc. 

The learner should have practice not only in doing, 
but also (as we have seen above) in correcting. He 
should learn to correct the mistakes of others, as well 
as his own, and to see exactly where the faults lie, and 
then he should be made to re-write correctly that which 
has been done incorrectly. 

When he has read anything in his work, he should 
(if possible) be made to put his acquired knowledge 
to the test and to apply it : he should never be allowed 
to learn anything that is worth learning, without going 
through it again to see whether he really knows and 



342 HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

understands it, and, if possible, doing some Exercise to 
see whether he has really mastered it. He should be 
made to look at the same point in many different 
aspects. 

Even while he is still young, he should be allowed to 
some extent to choose his own subjects, and to do these 
especially. This should be at intervals, the rest of the 
time being spent in practising weak subjects and weak 
departments of his Composition, such as the Arrange- 
ment of Ideas (p. 172), and (p. 227) the power of Ex- 
pressing them clearly. 

A great deal should be done viva voce. The pupils 
in any subject, whether it be History or Geography, 
should (as far as is feasible) be made to try the subject 
before they read or learn about it ; after the lesson 
they should be made to try it once again, writing down 
the Ideas as Headings. The Teacher should help and 
direct them in finding out these Ideas for themselves, 
for instance (see p. 287) by means of Comparisons and 
Contrasts. 

With regard to Style, as well as Ideas, the Nezv Testa- 
ment should certainly form the basis of study : see p. 217. 
It is a fault, if not a positive sin, to use the New Testa- 
ment only for the purposes of teaching boys, e.g., that 
St. John was confined in the castle of Machaerus, and 
never to teach them any lessons either of morality or of 
the kind which I have alluded to on page 217. I am 
very strongly of opinion that whatever can be taught 
from the New Testament should be taught from it. We 
cannot easily teach such subjects as Anatomy, Physi- 
ology, Euclid, Algebra, or Latin Grammar, from the 
New Testament, but we can teach much of the art of 
Composition from it. 



HOW TO TEACH COMPOSITION 343 

Every now and then, Time-Essays should be given, 
that is to say, an Essay should be set which has to be 
done within a given time ; this makes a pleasant change, 
or an unpleasant change, but anyhow it is a change and 
it must quicken the pupil's powers and improve his 
promptitude. For the pupil should aim not only at 
correctness and soundness, but also at rapidity. 

Debates and short Speeches are also an admirable 
Exercise. Forms and Classes at Schools ought to have 
plenty of Debates, and, to give the subject some 
interest, the pupils might even take various characters, 
e.g. represent various statesmen. No pupil should be 
allowed to read out his speech : at the most he should 
be allowed to refer to Headings which he has prepared 
beforehand. During the Debate, criticism of course 
should be allowed at the end of each Speech, and the 
master should also criticise, but the most important 
thing is that, at the end of the Debate, every pupil 
should write down the main Ideas on both sides of the 
question, the ' Pros and Cons ', and the master should 
then go over them on the Black-board, and, after rub- 
bing them out, he should make each boy reproduce 
them. Before each fresh lesson, the chief Ideas of the 
old lesson should be repeated. 

Of course all this means a great deal of time and 
trouble and preparation, and a great deal of thought and 
tact on the part of the Teacher as well as of the learner, 
and of course such labour will be very slow and difficult 
at first. But no success can be expected without such 
labour, and, if this system were introduced into our 
Schools, we should be fitting every pupil to become in 
his turn a Teacher, if ever the opportunity should arise. 

As it is now, zve send out our millions of young, not 



344 HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

only badly taught, but with not the slightest notion of the 
right methods of Teaching, whereas the boy who had 
tried to Lecture, if only for five minutes, before a class 
of twenty-five other boys, would at least have realised 
that Teaching is a very difficult art ; at least he would 
have had his interest aroused, and he would have had 
the advantages of practice. 

Let me finish by exposing that terrible fallacy that, if 
you cannot Teach naturally, if you are not a bom Teacher, 
you will never be a Teacher at all. Not one person out 
of a hundred or a thousand is a born Teacher, but there 
is no reason on earth why every one of the thousand 
should not master certain elementary principles of the 
,art of Teaching, such as the following: 

to find why the subject is interesting or useful, and to 
show the pupils why ; 

to put himself into the position of the pupils, and to 
ask himself ' What do they understand already, and by 
means of which of these things, that they understand 
already, can I best Teach those things which they do 
not yet understand ? 

to make the pupils correct faults, helping them to see 
why faults are faults ; 

to make them practise each part of the subject per se, 
by means of special Exercises ; 

to make the pupils practise Teaching ; 

and so on. 

These are a very few of the many principles which 
every Teacher should know. He may not be able to 
teach perfectly, or even well, when he has tried to put 
them into practice, but at any rate he will not teach 
quite so badly as he would probably have taught by 
the light of nature. 



CHAPTER LXVI. AIMS OF TEACHING. 



It is a very great error to suppose that the Teaching of 
any single subject should have only one single Aim and 
Object, unless indeed we define this Aim and Object 
as " true development and improvement ". 

But what is tnie development and improvement ? It 
is the highest development and improvement of each 
individual, through his own efforts, so that he may 
help others to develope and improve similarly. The 
Americans might call this ' Teaching each individual to 
become as good a Citizen as he can \ 

1. While having this as its Aim and Object, the 
Teaching should be as interesting and as pleasant as 
possible. 

2. It should also be of the greatest possible advantage 
and profit, to the individual's * mind, body, and estate \ 

It is not enough that the individual should absorb 
a mass of ' information ', or even that he should be 
skilful and successful in his own department (e.g. Essay- 
Writing). If this is all that the Teaching has done, 
then it has, to some extent, failed. 

\l should have taught the individual, for example, 

(a) how to use this information, as well as to under- 
stand it ; 

(J?) how to study other subjects besides his own ; 

(c) how to teach his own subject and also other 
subjects ; 

(d) how to improve himself all round. 

345 



346 HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

Such are a few of the Aims of Teaching : in other 
words, those who teach Essay-writing should of course 
try to help their pupils to prepare and write good 
Essays, and should put into their hands the means 
of self-correction, and the means of teaching and 
correcting others ; but they should also try to exercise 
and develope the mind and character of their pupils in 
all the best possible directions. 



CHAPTER LXVII. HOW TO PRACTISE. 



THE Habit of Practice is one which is very seldom 
acquired in early years, but it is among the most 
valuable habits of life. Benjamin Franklin was one 
of the few who understood how to acquire it. I cannot 
but think that, if it were once acquired, that is to say 
if a correct and scientific and interesting system of 
Practice were once acquired for any one subject, it 
could easily be applied, mutatis mutandis, to practically 
any other also. 

Here, as elsewhere, we may begin by a few words 
on the wrong method of Practising. 

In Essay-Writing and Speaking it is wrong Practice 
(at any rate at the outset) simply to try to do Essays, 
or make Speeches, to try, that is to say, to do the whole 
Essay or Speech as a single piece of work, and not 
to divide it into parts (see p. 45), and to Practise each 
part by itself. Why should this be wrong ? One reason 
is that your Essay or Speech is certain to have many 
faults, and, unless you take these faults one by one, you 
will never really correct any single one of them. You 
cannot correct any one part properly when you have 
to be attending to ten other parts at the same time. 

It is a mistake also not to make notes, i.e. always to 
be doing, and never correcting ; never to analyse one's 
merits or faults, or the faults or merits of others, and 
never to find out the causes and underlying principles. 

As to the right way of Practising, many of the above 
347 



34S HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

Chapters will suggest methods for each particular de- 
partment. Thus on page 63 foil, will be found a way of 
Practising the Collection of Ideas, on page 172 foil, a 
way of Practising their Arrangement, on page 231 away 
of Practising Clearness ; and so on. For example, 
Bacon's Essays could be Analysed, and the Headings 
could then be reproduced from Memory (after an in- 
terval), then corrected, then re-arranged, then corrected 
again, and then Expressed. 

One rule may be of great use. When I was treating 
of the choice of subjects I said that, if the occasion 
were an important one, such as an Examination where 
success was the main object, then it would be as well 
to choose one's strongest subject ; but for ordinary 
occasions, where improvement should be the object 
rather than success, it is better to choose one's weakest 
subject. In practice, then, go for your zveakest points, 
but in emergencies use your strongest points* 

Practise simple things first, and Practise them if pos- 
sible in their right order. The order has been given 
in the previous pages of this book (see p. 36) : for 
instance, the Collection of Headings, and then of Sub- 
Headings, should go before Selection, and this before 
Arrangement, and this before Expression, and so on. 

Each part must be Practised by itself, and some 
parts, such as the use of Comparisons and Contrasts, 
require (see p. 289) three separate methods of Practice. 

To quote an instance, we have seen that the Arrange- 
ment of Ideas should be taken as a separate Exercise, 
and that either the " Card-System " should be used, 
or the division of Ideas into " 1, 2, 3, a, b, c". 

The Realising of Ideas has already been treated 
* Cp. the advice in " Lessons in Lawn Tennis" (Upcott Gill). 



HOW TO PRACTISE 349 

(p. 231); but it is so important, so essential, that 
it needs a special word here. 

Drawing, and the use of Diagrams, are of very great 
value : we are apt to learn far too much by words, and 
far too little by clear Ideas and by sights. A Diagram, 
or a Drawing, or a mental picture of a thing, will often 
help to make it very clear when nothing else will. 

Paraphrasing is also valuable. Poetry should be para- 
phrased into Prose, and Prose into Poetry, and, at an 
advanced stage in Essay-Writing or Speaking, various 
styles might be imitated. At any rate, various forms 
of Expression should be studied side by side, for 
instance the Abstract and the Concrete. Supposing, 
for example, that we took the phrase " Wisdom brings 
happiness ", this would be Abstract : a Concrete ex- 
pression would be " Wise men are happy ", a still more 
Concrete expression would be " Socrates, who was wise, 
was happy ", and one still more Concrete " Socrates, 
whenever he had done some wise thing, was happy". 
Personification would give the same idea, e.g. " Happi- 
ness is a daughter of wisdom ". Cp. p. 273. 

As we have seen on page 243, it is essential to con- 
sider the point of view of the reader or hearer rather 
than merely one's own point of view : in other words, 
one must understand the mind of the reader or hearer. 
Hence anything which encourages sympathy with others 
must be good for the Essay-Writer or Speaker, and it is 
the best Practice for him to be always asking himself 
1 What interests A or B ? ' and ' W T hat is well-known and 
familiar to him ? ' in other words to take stock of other 
people's minds. 

Indispensable, in Practising, is the art (or the trouble) 
of cutting out afterwards whatever is unnecessary or 



350 HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

bad, and of freely criticising one's own work. It is 
almost as good Practice to do this to the work of 
others. Excellent Books for this purpose can be 
bought on Bookstalls at a halfpenny each : the cheaper 
they are, the more useful they are likely to be ! One 
can often take it for granted that a Book which origin- 
ally cost six shillings, and is now offered for a half- 
penny, contains materials for criticism. Only it must 
not always be other people that you criticise : it must 
sometimes be yourself. 

A special Exercise is to find out why you have failed : 
not merely to say that so-and-so is wrong, but to find 
out why it is wrong, and how the mistake might have 
been avoided. And then it is very necessary to register 
the faults under their different Headings, and to Practise 
these especially. In order to analyse your mistakes, to 
make notes of them, and to watch your progress, you 
should constantly keep at your side either Note-books 
or Cards. 

One or two really good samples, for instance the 
passage on page 212, should be gone through and read 
out loud again and again : I know one passage in which 
I found five new points even after I had studied it 
twenty times. 

A few words may be added in conclusion. 

While you are Practising, or rather before you begin 
to Practise, be sure that the work is made as interesting 
as possible (see p. 255). There must be some drudgery, 
but probably, the less there is, the better the work will 
be done. The notion that Practice must be unpleasant 
is gradually being done away with in Education. 

Secondly, always use effort and put your energy into 
the work. If this is done in the first stages ■, it will save 



HO IV TO PRACTISE 351 

time and energy in the long run. This does not mean 
fast work : it means energetic work. They are two 
very different things. 

Thirdly, when the attention begins to flag, then, if you 
are not too tired, turn to something else. Practise some 
other thing : for instance, a change from Collecting 
Ideas would be to paraphrase Abstract Language 
(see p. 233). But, if it be possible, almost directly a 
thing begins to tire you, avoid going on working at 
it. You may, for instance, try to Collect (by yourself) 
Headings for some of the Essay-Subjects in ' Pros and 
Cons ', and then refer to the book itself. But, directly 
your Ideas cease to come, rest, or change your work, or 
else do some other part of it : e.g. draw a Map, or else 
read the Authorised Version for the sake of studying 
the Rhythm. 



CHAPTER LXVIII. HOW TO READ. 



PEOPLE are often told to read, or they want to read, and 
they are often told or they decide for themselves what 
to read, but they are seldom if ever told how to read : 
the result of it is that most of them do it in quite the 
wrong way. 

I may as well begin, therefore, with a few words as to 
how one should not read. 

One should not attack a Book or Article, etc., before 
one has carefully thought out the subject for oneself : this 
does not apply to Novels and Stories, though even to 
them it might also apply occasionally. 

Secondly, one should not begin by reading only a part 
of the Book, etc., and mastering that : the whole should 
be read through quickly first. 

Thirdly, one should not simply read a Book or Article 
once, and then put it aside for ever. To do this is 
almost as bad as, or even worse than, the second fault 
of beginning some single part very carefully before one 
has grasped the general ideas. 

Fourthly, one should not analyse a Book, etc., page by 
page, or Paragraph by Paragraph, or Sentence by 
Sentence. It should be analysed in Sections, probably 
in Chapters, and the Analysis should not be put aside 
when it has been made : it should be reproduced and 
studied. 

352 



HOW TO READ 353 

Last of all, when a Book, etc., has been read, the 
information should not be left unused. It is a bad 
thing to stock oneself with information which one 
never uses. The mind in such a state has been com- 
pared to an overloaded stomach. 

I can now say a few words about the right way of 
reading, taking it for granted that the Book, etc., is 
worth reading. 

It should not be in bad print : never has there been a 
time when to use bad print would be such false economy. 
Books are cheaper now than they ever were, and to 
injure the eyesight and much more besides for the 
sake of a few pence is wretched policy. This does 
not mean that one should altogether give up small 
pocket editions of books : these are very useful for 
travelling, and many of them are excellently printed 
on excellent paper. 

1. Before reading a Book, etc , be sure to think out the 
subject first for yourself : write down your own notion as 
to what the Book, etc., should tell you, how it should 
arrange the Ideas, what Comparisons and Contrasts it 
should use, and so on. Put yourself into the Writer's 
position and think of the readers for whom he has 
written. This preparing of the ground is absolutely 
indispensable. 

Then read the Book itself. I think that, if it is really 
worth reading, it is worth reading three times. 

2. For the first time, read it very quickly, so as to get 
the general sense and drift ; perhaps the quicker you 
read it the better, just as, in Drawing, the quicker you 
do the outline, the more correct* it is likely to be as an 
outline. 



354 HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

3. I11 the second reading, study the Ideas more in detail. 
Chapter I., for example, should be read through slowly : 
the Ideas should be written down as Headings when 
you have finished the Chapter, but not before. Either 
an ordinary piece of paper or Cards (p. 186) may be 
used ; then look again at the Book and fill in what 
you have omitted. Write out the Headings once more 
in a Note-book of your own, or on Cards. 

4. It is important to write these Headings under one 
another, and not consecutively, and to leave spaces 
between them so that you may add fresh Ideas in the 
future. The Headings might also be marked 1, 2, 3, 
a, b, c. etc. 

5. When you have finished Chapter I., try Chapter II. 
in the same way, but, before you begin Chapter II., read 
through the Headings of Chapter I., or, better still, first 
try to reproduce them for yourself. Then, after Chapter 

II. has been done, proceed to Chapter III. Chapter 

III. should not be begun until the Ideas of Chapters I. 
and II. have been gone through again. 

6. Continue this Restime'e-method* and then, before 
you have reached Chapter X., you will have learnt 
Chapter I. ; and at the end of the Book you will have 
learnt practically all except the last two or three 
Chapters, and these can now be learnt in a very few 
minutes. 

7. During this reading, notice any suggestive pas- 
sages, and make notes of them, either on Cards or in 
a Note-book ; an A B C (Where is it ?) Note-book is 
the best. Be sure to give references to the original 
Book and its pages. These Notes should include notes 
on good subjects for Essays, on good Ideas, on good 

* See "How to Remember" (to be published by Warne & Co.). 



HOW TO READ 355 

Illustrations, etc., and they should be carefully cata- 
logued or arranged at intervals. 

8. The third reading should again be a slow reading, 
and in this you should study the Ideas no longer, but 
rather the Expression and Style. This may not be 
perfect : in fact, part of what you should do now is 
to criticise. Throughout this reading again write 
Headings on Cards or in your Note-book, and write 
out good passages under their various Headings (such 
as Clearness, and Emphasis). Try to imitate these 
passages in your own writing. As to how to find out 
exactly in what the Style consists, see page 211 foil. 

9. From what has been said, it will be clear that as 
you read, at any rate during the second and third 
readings, you should keep either a Note-book or paper 
or Cards by your side. 

10. Nowadays, also, a piece of advice can be given 
which would not have been so much in place years ago, 
namely, to mark the Book, if the marking of a Book 
is any help to you ; for to-day Books are so cheap that 
one can afford to mark them. By marking I do not 
merely mean underlining or adding lines at the side, but 
I mean also the writing of marginal notes or the making 
of notes at the top or bottom of the page. Personally, 
I write a great many notes at the end of the Book, 
making references to the pages. Then, at intervals, I 
classify these. For very important works, Interleaving 
is a good thing ; such a work as Buckle's " Civilisation " 
might well be interleaved. 

11. When you are considering the Ideas, and their 
Arrangement, and the Expression and Style, do not 
consider them only with a view to imitating the Writer. 
Imitation (see p. 219 foil.) is a very good thing if you wish 



356 HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

to become a writer of parodies, but otherwise it is apt 
to be a mistake ; for you will be very liable to imitate 
the eccentricities rather than the merits. 

12. With regard to the notes that you make, you 
should label them and catalogue them and as it were 
take stock of them, at intervals ; and, when you are taking 
stock, you will often find that you have a good deal 
that you can add. Such notes, especially if they are 
done on the Card-system (see p. 186) will be of the 
greatest value to you. 

13. [cp. 8.] Do not be afraid of criticising: this is 
important to remember. Besides this, the occasional 
criticism of Books is far more interesting than constant 
imitation : it gives you more chance of working inde- 
pendently. 

14. Keep a list of the Books and Articles which you 
read, and of the dates at which you read them, and 
perhaps of your general impression of them ; and keep 
a second list of the Books etc. which you ought to 
read. 

15. It is a good thing to read a little every day, 
keeping the lighter works for after meals or for the 
short time before you go to sleep. It is worth while 
to map out the Books etc. according to the time of day 
to which they will be most suited in your case. Any- 
how, keep as great a variety of suggestions as you can. 
This is essential for travelling. Sir John Lubbock 
points out how many people err in taking a single 
Book for a long journey ; it would be worth while to 
take ten minutes, before such a journey, in choosing 
what half-dozen books it would be best to take. 

16. And not only should you think out the question 
for yourself: you should also ask for advice. 

Above all, I cannot repeat too often that the notes 



HOW TO READ 357 

which you take should be read again and again and not 
merely put aside. 

Of the advantages of Reading, a great deal has been 
said by many writers. A very good collection of 
passages referring to this will be found in Mr. Shaylor's 
excellent little book on 'The Pleasures of Literature'. 
He gives quotations from many writers. 

And as to the best Books for reading, the New Testa- 
ment, the Speeches of Demosthenes (in English), and 
the Speeches of Burke, may be among the most useful 
for anyone who wishes to study Style and (see p. 299) 
the artifices of Style and ' Persuasion '. As to the best 
Books for subject-matter, those are best which suggest 
most : for instance Buckle's " History of Civilisation in 
England " would be good for this reason, that it sets 
one thinking and makes one work out ideas for oneself. 
For the same reason one could recommend Stout's 
" Psychology ", Hogarth's " Philip and Alexander of 
Macedon", Cunningham's "Western Civilisation," and 
hundreds of other well-known works. The lists of 
"The Hundred Best Books" will suggest others. 



CHAPTER LXIX. HOW TO LEARN FROM 

LECTURES, SPEECHES, ETC. 



It is a great mistake to listen to a Lecture or Speech 
without previous preparation, for in such a case it will be 
like sowing on ground that is not ready for the seed. 

A second great mistake is to write down every word 
which is said, and afterwards never to look at the notes 
again ; this mistake is very common at Schools and at 
the Universities : I have many such note-books ! 

Still further, it is a great mistake to write down the 
Ideas, or to listen to them without writing them down, 
and then never try to reproduce or apply them afterwards. 

The great difficulty and problem is this. If at a 
Lecture I write down what I hear, I shall not be able 
to attend properly ; if I attend properly, I shall not be 
able to write down what I hear. The difficulty is solved 
if the Lecturer or Speaker, e.g. after the Lecture is over, 
presents his hearers with a Scheme or Syllabus of the 
subject-matter. But few are energetic enough to do 
this, and as a rule the listener has to do what he can, all 
by himself. 

The following piece of advice is most important. 

As with reading, so here, the subject must be worked 
otit befo7 r ehand. What will the Lecturer say? how will 
he Arrange his ideas ? what Illustrations and Contrasts 
will he use ? how will he begin the Lecture, and how 
will he end it ? 

358 



HOW TO LEARN FROM LECTURES, ETC. 359 

The advantages of working this out beforehand are 
almost too obvious to need mention. When the Lecture 
comes, it will be of far greater interest to you ; it will 
have given you a chance of working out the subject for 
yourself, that is to say, a chance of originality and self- 
activity. And not only this, but the ground will have 
been prepared : you will have a smaller number of Ideas 
to pay attention to, and to absorb and assimilate. Your 
power of criticism will undoubtedly be improved, and, 
if by any chance you have thought of a number of 
good Ideas which the Lecturer has not mentioned, you 
will gradually acquire more and more confidence in 
your own powers, and you will be greatly encouraged 
to go through the same labour again. 

When the Lecture begins, either jot down the Ideas 
at the time, and try to reproduce them afterwards, and 
then correct and re-write (in your Note-book or on 
Cards) what you have tried to reproduce, or else write 
down nothing at the time, and try to reproduce the 
Ideas afterwards; most of this latter reproduction might 
be corrected afterwards either by a Book or Books, which 
are sure to contain most of the Lecturer's Ideas, or by a 
report in a newspaper, or by a friend's notes, etc. 

The third method, which is especially valuable if you 
can take Shorthand notes, is to write down the Lecture 
word for word, and then to copy it out afterwards and 
read it as a Book or Essay. 

Much will depend of course upon how good the 
Lecture is, and on how important the subject is. 



CHAPTER LXX. GENERAL HINTS AND HELPS. 



THE reader should consult the Chapters on " How to 
Learn" (pp. 23, 358), and "How to Practise" (p. 347). 

1. For the Collection of Ideas a very great help is a 
knowledge of History, and not only of its main features 
but also of certain Periods in detail ; and a knowledge 
of Biography is invaluable : such men as Watt and 

( Carey and Algernon Sidney are well worth following 
through their career. 

2. Of more general subjects, Sociology and Science may 
be mentioned, but it is of little use to read these sub- 
jects in the wrong way (see p. 352) : they must be read 
with very careful observation, and must be thought over 
beforehand, and thought over and reproduced afterwards. 

3. An occasional walk in the country or in a town may 
be made a very useful means of Collecting or Revising 
Ideas : see for instance the Chapter on " Comparisons " 
(p. 288). It will also secure that very important element, 
change. 

4. In fact, the subject should be changed directly one 
begins to feel tired, and great care should be taken to 
apportion the special subjects to the special times at 
which you can do them best. Keep the easiest subjects 
for the times when you feel least inclined for work. 

5. The memory should be carefully cultivated and 
exercised (see " How to Remember ", to be published 
by Warne & Co.) ; for without a good memory your 
Compositions will be pretty certain to fail. 

360 



GENERAL HINTS AND HELPS 361 

6. Memory in its turn depends largely upon healthy so 
that health should be a very important consideration 
for Essay-Writers and Speakers. 

7. Without health it is almost impossible for most 
people to concentrate and focus their attention for long 
periods of time together, and we have found that, in 
order to succeed, the Writer or Speaker must focus his 
attention not only on the work as a whole but on each 
of its parts in turn. 

8. Moreover, it requires very great effort of will to 
keep the general Idea of the Essay in the mind at the 
same time that one is attending to each part. 

9. Another help towards this concentration is Interest. 
Of Interest we have already spoken on page 255 : the 
preparation of the Composition will have far more 
Interest if one takes a little trouble about such things 
as timing oneself (e.g. seeing how long it takes to write 
an Essay of 3000 words), or if one keeps records of 
improvement, or if one asks for criticism from others, 
and so on. With a little care the work may become 
very interesting for many reasons. 

10. Practice, again, we have seen to be quite essential 
to progress, that is to say if at first it be correct and slow, 
and if it be persisted in ; it is essential, in spite of the 
fact that the success may not be immediate. One of 
the best kinds of Practice is Precis-Writing (p. 183) : it 
can be done by the " Card-System ". 

1 1. Another form of Practice is to take passages, and first 
of all to analyse them and find the Ideas they contain, 
and the way in which those Ideas are Arranged, and 
then (p. 211) to find the peculiarities of Style. In fact 
any good passage should not only be read, but should 
also be analysed in this way, so that whatever is good 
may be found and noted. 



362 HINTS ON COMPOSITION 

12. But many passages will not be nearly as useful as 
they might be, unless you read them aloud. 

13. It is a good thing to take a general subject (like 
'Slavery 5 , or 'Athletics') and first of all to do it with 
the * General Essay Headings ' (p. 92), and then to treat 
some one of these Headings (e.g. ' Changes ', or ' Re- 
sults ') as a separate Essay all by itself. For this the 
Period-Headings (p. 83) will be of use. 

14. In the Composition it may be useful to put in a 
few simple Diagrams or Maps : this is very seldom done 
in ordinary Essays, and yet how often we see an Essay 
or Article in which a simple little Diagram would 
explain an Idea far more fully than a whole page of 
description. At any rate during the preparing of many 
Compositions such Diagrams are indispensable. 

15. Whether or no one should write an Analysis in the 
margin of the Composition, or should give a separate 
Scheme quite apart from the Composition itself, is a 
question which has often been discussed (see p. 314). 
There are many who say that the plain Essay should 
appear without any running Analysis in the margin, 
and without any Scheme. I think this is quite wrong, 
because the Analysis certainly helps those who wish 
to refer to any particular part again, and the Scheme 
helps those who wish to rush very quickly through the 
whole Composition again ; and if, on the other hand, 
people do not want the Analysis or the Scheme, they 
are quite at liberty to take no notice of it* 

16. This piece of advice is part of a more general 
principle, namely, adapt yourself to the larger number 

* With regard to printed Books, etc., it may be noted that the (indented) 
running Analysis in the Margin is a very expensive item, though un- 
doubtedly a wonderful help to the reader. 



GENERAL HINTS AND HELPS 363 

of readers or hearers, and especially to those who 
demand most. 

Let your Essay be clear for the benefit of the ignorant 
and unliterary ; let it be short and interesting for the 
benefit of the lazy and unenthusiastic ; let it be correct 
and polished to satisfy the scholars and pedants, and 
let it have in it some personal elements to satisfy 
the young — and females. And perhaps let it have a 
little flattery in it to satisfy nearly everyone : for in- 
tance (see p. 257) "the sensible reader must be aware 
that 

17. When the Essay is done, it must be revised once 
or twice at least, after an interval if possible. See p. 330. 

18. Above all things, never ovei'-economise in paper, 
because paper is as a rule cheaper than time and 
labour. 

19. The need of a change of subject has already been 
mentioned. There is also need of another change — a 
change of position : you should read a good deal 
standing instead of sitting. I believe that certain 
subjects are best read while one is actually lying down. 
Another change will be to read out loud (see p. 307), at 
first very distinctly and carefully. 



Part V 



PART V. HINTS ON WRITING FOE THE PRESS, 
SPEAKING, AND LETTER-WRITING. 



CHAPTERS FAGK 

LXXI. Hints on Writing for the Press, 

Correcting Proofs, and Index-Making. 367 

LXXI I. Speaking . . . .. 384 

LXXI II. Letter-Writing > , 39c- 



CHAPTER LXXI. HINTS ON WHITING 
FOR THE PRESS, 
CORRECTING PROOFS, 
AND INDEX-MAKING. 



In the first place, there should be no economy of paper. 
It is one of the greatest mistakes that Writers make, to 
waste an hour of time so as to save a farthing's worth 
of paper. Time is worth more than a farthing an hour, 
at any rate to most of my readers. 

In Writing for the Press, the methods which I have 
already described (p. 36) should always be used. 
Especial care should be taken over the Scheme and its 
arrangement. 

After the Scheme has once been prepared, a long 
interval should be left. Supposing that the Scheme is 
done on the Card-System (see p. 186), then put aside 
these Cards for let us say a week. They should be put 
where they can easily be got at and added to. During 
the week the subject will be (often unconsciously) turned 
over and over in your mind, and at the end of the week 
you will have certain additions, corrections, and altera- 
tions. 

When the Composition has been written out or Type- 
written, you should (after the interval) criticise it part 
by part : that is to say, you should criticise the Ideas 
and their Arrangement etc. by the Scheme itself; you 
should criticise the Expression and Style by the Essay 
or Article ; and then you should criticise the Rhythm 
367 



368 HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 

separately ; reading aloud is almost the only means of 
doing this. 

Unpleasant though it may be, yet the criticism of a 
friend, or (better still) of an enemy, is invaluable : there 
is scarcely one person in a thousand who can look at 
his own productions with an unbiassed eye. As the 
mother is wont to think all her children quite perfect, 
and will not be convinced that they have any faults, so 
the Writer is apt to think his own Writings perfect. It 
is only a second person who has the power of criticism ; 
and, the more critics you can get, the better it will be. 

When criticism has been offered, it should not neces- 
sarily be accepted and acted on, but at any rate it 
should be considered with an open mind, and the 
suggestions should be noted down for future use, for 
instance in an 'A B C ' Note-book. In the same way 
you should make notes of any suggestions by Editors 
or Publishers, though unfortunately they are not easy to 
get. I suppose the Editors or Publishers dread a long 
letter of self-defence. 

When an Article or Book has been written, it must be 
type-written before it is sent to the Editor or Publisher, 
that is to say, unless it has been ordered beforehand or 
unless you are well known. The reason is not simply 
that Type-writing looks better than ordinary writing, 
and that it is easier to read, but it actually is a fact that 
few Editors or Publishers will read anything that is not 
Type-written. It is much to be lamented for many 
reasons, but still it is a fact to be remembered. 

Yet Type-writing has more advantages when one looks 
into the matter : it is fairly cheap, of course far cheaper 
than print ; and it gives a fair idea of what the work will 
look like when it is in print. It is seldom remembered 



HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 369 

that there is a great distinction between a thing which 
is heard, and a thing which is read in ordinary writing, 
and a thing which is read in print. In fact these differ- 
ences almost necessitate certain differences in Style. 
Now Type-writing is far nearer to print than ordinary 
writing is. 

But this is not all, for Type-writing, if done by some 
other person, ensures an interval during which new Ideas 
may occur to you. Without such an interval it is quite 
possible that the work would have been sent straight off 
to the Publisher in an unready condition ; after it had 
been sent, you would think of something that you would 
wish to alter. Very few have the strength of mind to 
keep back for a whole week a piece of Writing which 
they have finished. Type-writing sometimes necessitates 
this interval, or at any rate a certain interval. 

A novice who has written anything for a Publisher or 
Editor must be prepared to wait: a novice has not the 
smallest conception of how long the waiting may be. 
A short time ago I sent an Article (with a stamped and 
addressed envelope) to a certain Editor : not hearing 
from him for a few weeks, I wrote and enclosed another 
stamped and addressed envelope, and asked him to send 
me a word to say if there were any chance of his accept- 
ing the Article. After three such letters (each very 
polite and with its envelope), I eventually received my 
Article back ; the Editor said that if I had been content 
to wait for a little (this was after five weeks), he would 
have put the Article in ! This delay is not exceptional. 

Another Article I sent to a Paper, and after twenty 
weeks, and after many letters (which enclosed stamped 
and addressed envelopes), I was told that the Article 
was unsuitable for the Paper. 
2 B 



37o HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 

The reader must not think that these are at all unique 
cases. The other day a friend told me that a well- 
known Editor had kept an Article of his for three years, 
and had then offered to exchange it for another (perhaps 
because it was no longer up to date). 

Therefore, even if you write the politest letter in the 
world, and enclose a stamped envelope for reply, you 
must not expect to have an answer for some weeks or 
months or even for a year or more. 

There is some excuse for the Editor whose numbers 
have to be prepared weeks and months beforehand : 
spaces are left, it is true, but these are either for special 
topics of the day, or for Articles by regular Contributors. 
Moreover masses of contributions are wont to be sent in 
daily. 

But in my opinion nothing can excuse the laziness of 
a great number of Editors. When the Writers are 
poor and have staked a great deal on their Writings, 
then the laziness is simply disgusting : in fact, it amounts 
to cruelty. It is concerned with some of the very 
saddest tragedies that the world has ever seen, and 
I only mention it because it is very common and be- 
cause it is as well that the novice should know what to 
expect. 

The following point is very little considered, but still 
its consideration might have saved thousands of disap- 
pointments. The right Editor or Publisher should be 
selected. The Writer whose best work has been once or 
twice refused is apt to despair, but the reason is not 
always that the work is bad. I would not for a moment 
encourage worthless Writers, but at the same time it is 
as well that a Writer should be given every chance. 
Putting aside the laziness of the Reader or Publisher, 



HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 371 

or his bias in favour of the most orthodox and cus- 
tomary views, it is quite possible that the (Reader or) 
Editor or Publisher may be of the wrong kind for your 
particular work. Your work may be on a subject which 
he does not care for, perhaps on a subject outside his 
'line 5 . For Publishers have lines. Or it may be too 
long, or too short, or the subject may not be treated 
according to his views of what is right. I have found 
that what one Publisher has rejected with scorn or even 
with abuse, another (and perhaps even a superior) 
Publisher has actually welcomed. Possibly the second 
Publisher is less wise than the first : but the point 
which I wish to emphasise is that he may accept what 
the first has rejected. This has held good not once 
only within my own experience, but many times. In 
the case of one of my works it was refused at first by 
an inferior Publisher, then by a better Publisher, then 
by a still better Publisher, and then by a still better 
Publisher, and was finally accepted by one who stood 
very near the top of the list ! 

For this reason, and because no Writer can be ex- 
pected to know what particular Publisher or Editor 
will be likely to accept his work, I should suggest the 
advantage of a good Agent. Not only does he save 
you bother, but he may save you time, and disappoint- 
ment. Instead of your offering the work to ten people, 
he will say at once " This is something for A or B ; if 
neither of these two will accept it, probably no one 
will." 

As to the sending of your Manuscript, you should have 
on it your name and address, and the Number of Words 
(this is very important), and the Date. The Manu- 
script, as we have said, should be Type-written ; and 



372 HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 

should be paged, and the pages should be fastened 
together ; the whole should be carefully packed, and 
with it should be sent a stamped envelope addressed to 
yourself, so that the receiver may return it if he will. If 
you write a letter to the Publisher, let it be very very 
short : do not write an Autobiography. 

Though I believe it is not often done, still it is ex- 
tremely useful to send a Scheme of the work with the 
work itself, so that the Reader can see at a glance, not 
only the subject of the work, but also the way in which 
the subject is treated. 

In fact, probably numbers of Editors would be glad 
to receive, in the first instance, a Scheme along with 
perhaps one paragraph or two as a specimen of the 
Style of the whole. With the Editor's (real or imaginary) 
pressure of work, this may save many minutes. The 
Scheme and the specimen together might be two pages, 
instead of perhaps fifteen for an Article, or two or three 
hundred for a book. You could write, with them, a 
short note to this effect : — 

Dear Sir, 

I enclose a Scheme and a specimen. Are yon 
likely to accept the work, provided that it is done to your 
satisfaction, and on the lines shown in the Sclieme, and 
provided that it has about [3000] words ? If not, could 
you suggest any alteration which might incline you to 
accept it? 

The great advantage of this will be the saving of time 
for you, as a Writer : and the saving of trouble and of 
disappointment, and also of expense, if the work is 
going to be Type -written ; the waste of money and 



HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 373 

time are chiefly to be considered in case the work should 
not be eventually accepted. It is needless to say that 
you will save the Reader a great deal of time and 
trouble, and Readers (being human) will be likely to be 
pleased if you do this for them. 

The chief merit of the method is this. The Reader will 
easily judge of the Ideas, and of their Arrangement, by 
the Scheme which you send, and of the Style and Ex- 
pression by the specimen which you send. If he is likely 
to accept the work at all, he will be just as likely to 
accept it when he sees the Scheme, as when he sees 
the whole work without the Scheme — in fact, far more 
so. 

There is another reason also. When you have sent 
your work, and before you receive an answer, there is 
sure to be an interval: it may be only a few days, it 
may be many months. During that time, your views 
and ideas are more than likely to change. Supposing 
you have only sent the Scheme, and in fact have only 
done the Scheme, then it will be very easy to add to or 
alter that Scheme.- But, if the whole work has been 
already written out, it will be very tiresome to have to 
add to it or alter it. While to alter the Scheme would 
take perhaps only two minutes, to alter the work itself 
might take as long as two hours. 

In Writing for the Press, the length of the work is of 
very great importance. An Editor is little likely to 
accept an Article of ten thousand words, and the 
present tendency is for Articles, and for Books, to be- 
come shorter and shorter. As we said, the length of the 
work should always be quoted as so many Words. The 
best way is to count the number of words in a line, 
taking an average of say fifty lines ; and- then to count 



374 HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 

the number of lines on a page (in Type-writing they will 
generally be the same number) ; and then to count the 
number of full pages ; by this means, multiplying the 
average number of words in a line by the number of 
lines, you will get the number of Words quite near 
enough for practical purposes. 

The Title of the work is almost of more importance 
than even the Beginning of it (p. 258), though that of 
course is itself a part that is worth much time and 
attention. The Ending is more difficult than the Be- 
ginning, but possibly it is not always of so great im- 
portance. When you Write, you must constantly take 
account of the rapidity with which your work is likely 
to be read ; we might almost say not only the rapidity 
but even the carelessness. If you were an Editor and 
wanted to judge of a Composition within two minutes, 
you would consider three things : the Title first, the 
Beginning second, and the Ending third. By the first 
two (and perhaps the Illustrations) people are wont to 
choose Novels. For one Book which I wrote I had to 
suggest nearly twenty Titles before I could get one that 
would satisfy the Publisher. The Publisher, as I now 
realise, was perfectly right. 

A few details may be of use. You should keep an 
abundant supply of good paper and of paper-fasteners ; 
your Cover should be carefully prepared ; and the paper 
itself should have wide margins. 

One or two words may be said about Dictation. Some 
statistics as to time are given on page 191. If you can 
afford to dictate and to have the notes Type-written after- 
wards, you may be able to do the work in perhaps one- 
sixth of the time; and the advantage is not only this 
saving of hours and hours> and the saving of the (almost 






HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 375 

mechanical) drudgery of copying out notes, but it is 
also most excellent practice for the Speaker. To have 
notes before one, merely consisting of Headings (p. 63 
foil.), and to be able to turn those Headings at once into 
Sentences, at the rate of as many as six thousand words 
an hour, must not only improve your mastery of lan- 
guage, but must also help you to express yourself at a 
moment's notice (for instance in an after-dinner Speech 
or in a Debate). Besides this, many realise their faults 
and failings better when they are speaking out loud to 
another, than when they are writing on paper. 

The Phonograph is to be recommended, but there is 
a certain amount of mechanical work in attending to it. 

If you wish to decide whether it is worth your while 
to dictate to a Shorthand-writer, or whether you ought 
rather to write out the work for yourself, you will have 
to consider how muck your time is worth per hour. If 
your time brings in, let us say, ten shillings an hour, and 
if the dictation for one single hour will cost five shillings 
and will save you five hours of mechanical work, then I 
unhesitatingly say ' Dictate'. It is true that you will be 
spending five shillings, but you will be saving five hours, 
which will mean the possibility of earning fifty shillings. 
If you have very little time to spare, and very much 
money, then by all means dictate. 

If, on the other hand, you have a great deal of time 
to spare, but very little money, then write out the whole 
thing for yourself, or Type-write it if you can. 

It is left for each reader to find out the right mean 
between the two extremes — that is to say, to find out 
whether his time is more valuable to him than his 
money. The question is one that is well worth a very 
careful calculation. 



376 HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 



Why Publishers etc. do not accept 
Compositions. 

When a Composition is not accepted, it may be the 
fault of the Author (or perhaps of his Agent), or it 
may be the fault of the Publisher (or of his Reader). 
Or, again, the fault may lie with both parties, or the 
fault may lie with no one at all. 

Supposing the Composition itself is bad (I use the 
word 'bad' in its widest sense), supposing it has bad 
Ideas, is badly written, badly Arranged, badly Expressed, 
and so on, or supposing it is too long, or supposing 
it is not in the Publisher's 'line' — for Publishers have 
' lines ' — then the fault may lie with the Author (or with 
his Agent). 

But the fault may lie with the Publisher or Reader, 
supposing that the work is not looked at or is not read 
(and this is the case occasionally), or supposing it is read 
carelessly, or supposing it is read carefully but the 
Reader refuses to open his mind as it were, or supposing 
(as I have known to be the case once or twice) the 
Publisher or Reader has some personal prejudice, or 
takes offence at something that is said. 

Supposing again that the Publisher or his Reader 
expects that the work will not sell, then the fault may 
be a fault of judgment, but anyhow it is not always one 
for which the Publisher or Reader are to be blamed. 
Thousands of gross errors have been made for this 
reason, and many of them may be put down to the 
fact that (unwilling as one is to say it) Publishers and 



HINTS ON CORRECTING PROOFS 377 

their Readers have seldom received the right kind of 
education to fit them for their task. The education for 
such a task should be of the very widest kind, and yet 
of the most special kind. I do not think that England 
at present offers any such education. 

Where the fault lies, when the Writer has not yet won 
a name, is very doubtful, for the Publisher can hardly 
be expected to publish a work which he thinks that 
no one will read, and, on the other hand, the work itself 
may be well worth reading, especially if its ' public ' can 
be found. 

It is no one's fault if the Publisher has no time to 
publish ; his year's List may be quite full already. 



Hints on Correcting Proofs. 

To begin with, one may say that there should be 
some clear understanding, or rather some written Agree- 
ment, between the Writer and the Publisher, stating how 
much per sheet (of 16 pages) the Author is to be 
allowed for Corrections: it may be 4s., for instance. For, 
on the one hand, it is ridiculous that the Author should 
never be allowed to see his proofs at all (this was 
the case with one Article of mine) ; and, on the other 
hand, it is still more ridiculous that the Author should 
be allowed to make Corrections which amount to two 
or three hundred pounds, as I believe was the case with 
a certain well-known work. The Corrections were not 
only huge but also extremely silly ; evidently the book 
had been carelessly prepared. A couple of perusals 
of the MS. may save pounds of expense in Corrections. 



373 HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 

A great deal of trouble I have found to be saved, 
if, with the Manuscript, there are sent instructions to the 
Printer ; pointing out, for instance, how the Type should 
be altered, and that Capital Letters should be put in 
where they occur in the MSS ! But anyhow the Author 
should notice where the Proof differs from his Manu- 
script : he can hardly be called upon to pay for any 
Corrections of this kind. 

Much has to be left to the Publisher. But, if there 
are going to be heavy Corrections, the Author should 
suggest that he should have the Proof in 'Slips' 
before he has it in pages. The expense of heavily 
correcting print when it is in Slips is very much less 
than that of correcting print when it is in pages. For, 
if you add three lines to one page, that will affect the 
following pages — perhaps as many as 15 pages. On the 
other hand, the turning of Slips into pages is itself a 
very expensive process. 

In these Slips always ask for wide Margins, for 
the printers have no right to economise in paper : 
the paper of their Proofs is often quite inferior enough 
already. 

When the Proofs come, look through them im- 
mediately, especially if they come in Slips ; but do not 
send them back at once ; if you can, keep them for a 
day or two, or even for a week, especially if you are 
going to look through them only once : the Punctuation 
alone may require a separate reading. 

The following remarks may be commonplaces to a 
great many of my readers, but I feel bound to mention 
them here. 

Write in ink, unless your pencil is very black. 

Learn and practise very carefully, one by one, the 



HINTS ON CORRECTING PROOFS 379 

different sign's for changes. Underlining a word or 
words means italics ; a double line may mean capital 
letters or thick type. 

The following little passage will show what the 
commonest signs of correction are. 



chad./ Si 



■1 



7 



r/ 



3 



se/ 



full>' one 



\ practi/elvery care/ 
one ' by one, the 
•fcfes. di/erent si(n|[s for chan- 
ges/ Under-lining ( Italics^ a 
Mord or words means/; a 
double / may mean capital 
JLeftevs or thick type/ -a«4 
\he following little paskg'e 
will shoufhat thet^ommonest 



6 



signs |are/ of correction! ITo 
the/ remarks/ ....... 



-fa 



TV** . 



i- 






To these remarks I may add a few extra hints. 

When anything has been omitted it is as well to 
insert it by means of lines, and to put the new words in 
the Margin. 

When there is anything to be noticed, for instance 
when the type is not quite straight, then a little mark in 



3 8o HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 

the Margin should be quite enough to call the attention 
of the printer to the fault. 

When there is a large Correction, it may be as well 
often to re-write the whole sentence ; the printer may be 
able to use some of the old type again, and thus you 
may save expense. 

But, when there is a large addition to be made, then 
it may be better to write it on a separate piece of paper 
and to pin this on to the Proof, marking very clearly, in 
the Proof itself the place where it should be inserted. 

The above Corrections and Hints should be practised 
carefully, one by one. A very good opportunity for 
doing this is an ordinary journey, especially in the 
train : many minutes can be spent most usefully in this 
way. 

But, after all, you will save much trouble in correcting 
the Proofs if you take great care with your original 
Manuscript. Indeed, when I prepare works by the 
Card-System, I find that instead of having to correct, 
let us say, twenty words on a page, sometimes I only 
have to correct one or two words on two pages. Not only 
should the Card-System be used, but the Manuscript 
when done should be laid aside for a time and then 
looked at again ; a week is almost the smallest time 
which should be allowed. As I have shown (on p. 369), 
Type-writing will help in this direction : the delay which 
it ensures will mean far fewer Corrections when the 
Proofs arrive. 



HINTS ON MAKING INDICES 381 



Hints on Making Indices. 

The importance of an Index, for nine books out 
of every ten, is undoubted. There are some people 
who do little or nothing else but prepare and write 
Indices, and whether you give up the Index to one 
of these workers or do it yourself is again a matter 
of money as compared with time (see p. 375). It will 
also depend on whether you think that the Index- 
maker would understand your work sufficiently well 
to make an Index which would satisfy you. The 
following remarks are intended only for those who 
mean to do the Index for themselves. 

Read through the work carefully at least once, and try 
to put yourself in the average reader's position, asking 
yourself what things he or she is likely to wish to 
refer to. 

While you are reading through the work, make 
' cross-references ', and write down on a sheet of paper 
the most important pages, especially those where (so 
to speak) two or three roads meet, that is to say, pages 
which contain allusions to a large number of topics 
which will come in the Index. On the same principle, 
if you were studying the Geography of a country you 
would have to make a careful note of the chief towns, 
and of the places where many roads met. 

It is better of course to have the Index too full than 
too empty : to refer to a word or idea two or three 
times, than to refer to it only once. A great difficulty 
of Indexing is that there are in our language many 
Synonyms (such as Wealth and Riches) ; if one chooses 



382 HINTS ON WRITING FOR THE PRESS 

a single word, it is quite possible that the reader will 
look in the Index for some other word ; it is therefore 
better to write down both words. Practice in Para- 
phrasing (see p. 252 foil.) will come in useful here. 

The Card- -System, with small Cards or pieces of 
paper, is essential ; and it is also essential not to write 
more than 07ie Heading on a single Card. It is the 
greatest mistake, in doing an Index, to write down 
ten Headings on a single piece of paper. You may 
have to add some very important new Headings, and 
the putting-in of these Headings may make the paper 
in a terrible mess. If you write each Heading on a 
separate piece of paper, it becomes very much easier 
to arrange these pieces in alphabetical order after- 
wards ; in fact to re-arrange and alter and add would 
be no difficulty at all. The following Diagram will 
show the contrast. 

Here, as elsewhere (p. 367), there must be no sparing 
of paper : paper is very cheap. 



a b c 


a h i 


aj k 


a n 


al m 


a d e 


afg 



(1.) Card-System : the wrong 
order can easily be remedied if 
each Heading is on a separate 
Card or Slip. 



HINTS ON MAKING INDICES 




(2.) Page- System : the inser- 
tions are clumsy, especially if 
a d e happens to be a large 
Heading (e.g. of 10 words). 



Besides paper, you may need paste and long strips on 
which to fasten the various separate pieces. 

You also need a very large table, on which to arrange 
the pieces of paper, or else a Holder like that which is 
described on p. 187. Do not let anyone ' tidy ' your papers ! 

In the Index itself, the references and cross-references 
might be to pages rather than to Sections. To refer 
to Sections is very easy for the Writer, and is good 
especially when the book will run to a second edition- 
but it is generally exasperating for the reader. I 
know of one book where on one page there are five 
Sections, whereas another single Section lasts for 25 
pages ! The reader wastes no end of time owing to 
this want of uniformity, whereas, with references to 
pages, an idea can be discovered almost immediately. 

An Index can be accumulated by degrees, especially 
if the Card -System is used. Mr. Swan Sonnenschein 
kindly told me of an excellent plan. Instead of putting 
all the Cards for the letter C in a mass under C, divide 
them into CA — CE — CI— CO — CU — : each will in- 
clude all the words in which C is the first letter, and 
A etc. the first vowel : e.g. CA would include Cats, 
Crassus, and Classics. These can be sorted afterwards. 

Index -making is work which one does best if one 
does it for lon^ stretches of time together. 



CHAPTER LXXII. SPEAKING. 



There is a very great difference (see p. 19) between 
Speaking and Writing. But the difference is not 
always appreciated. A Lecturer, for instance, very 
often writes down his Lecture beforehand, and then 
reads it out from his paper when he comes before his 
listeners. What may be clear to him as he reads the 
written Lecture may be very far from clear to those 
who have to listen. Of this I shall speak below. 

Speaking demands a considerable effort of memory* 
of course I am not treating here of Speaking in the 
sense of reading a Speech from a paper or book, which 
is the worst form of Speaking. Not only should the 
Speaker remember the Ideas, their right Order, their 
Importance, and their Connexions, and the Comparisons 
and Contrasts by which he shall make them clear, or 
Emphasise them : not only should he remember the whole 
Beginning and the whole Ending of his Speech (the 
Beginning being interesting, and the Ending generally 
impressive) ; but he must also remember a certain 
amount with regard to the way in which these Ideas 
are to be Expressed. The Practice of Speaking, there- 
fore, will be a first-rate exercise for the memory, putting 
it to an extremely severe test. 

The Memory, as well as the power of Speaking, will 
depend a good deal not only upon the general Health, 

* See " How to Remember" (to be published by Warne & Co.). 



HINTS ON SPEAKING 385 

but upon the food which has been taken beforehand. 
There are some who cannot Speak well after a heavy 
meal, and there are some who cannot Speak well except 
after a heavy meal ! See ' Muscle, Brain, and Diet ' 
(Sonnenschein). 

There are many different classes of Speeches, from, 
the Technical Lecture addressed to Specialists only, 
and the Debate, which may be more or less Techni- 
cal, to the popular subject, which must appeal to 
a number of people of all sorts and conditions, in- 
cluding people of very small intelligence and with 
very few ideas. 

As contrasted with print, and especially with the 
excellent modern print of Books and Articles, Speak- 
ing should be shorter than Writing ; this applies par- 
ticularly to Sermons, which are often stupendously long. 
The clergyman who has written out his Sermon has no 
idea how dull it may be when he comes to speak it. 

With regard to Lectures, so great is the strain of 
listening to a Lecture for many minutes together, even 
if it be simple and popular, that it is a wonder that 
more Lecturers do not have intervals in their Lectures, 
e.g. intervals for Music. I am sure that the Lectures 
would be twice as pleasant and only half as fatiguing. 
The interval would of course drive some of the Ideas 
out of the listeners' minds, but, after it, that which had 
been said before could be gathered up in a short 
Resumee. The same will apply to Sermons. I am 
sure that the Sermon of more than twenty minutes, 
unless it be exceptionally good, produces such feelings 
of fidgetiness and discomfort (if it does not succeed in 
producing sleep) that the good effects are entirely 
outweighed. Whereas, if the clergyman really has so 
2 c 



3 86 HINTS ON SPEAKING 

much to say, there is no reason why the Sermon, like 
the Prayers, should not have intervals of Music. The 
principle is a very wide one, and, if only the subject 
be gathered up in a few sentences when the Lecturing 
is re-commenced, there seems no objection to such 
interludes. 

Not only must Spoken words be shorter than Written 
words, but they must also be far clearer. A useful 
hint for those who are Speaking to a mixed audience 
is : "Make your language as simple and clear as possible, 
and appeal to the very lowest intellect, as a general rule ; 
but, just occasionally, throiv in some little remark or 
suggestion which might appeal only to the more intelligent 
or learned. 

It will be found that this was the method which a 
very great teacher used to adopt. Most of what he said 
appealed to the lowest intellects and to the interests and 
points of view of the great majority of human beings ; 
but occasionally he gave little touches which must have 
been absolutely beyond the understanding of the 
majority : these were addressed to the more learned 
and clever. 

Of Clearness we have already spoken on page 227. 
We have seen how the personal language, describing 
someone as doing something, is a very important factor 
in Clearness, and also how a Repetition or a Paraphrase 
may help much, and Comparisons and Contrasts still 
more. These latter, the Comparisons and Contrasts, 
make the Speech more interesting as well ; and this 
brings us to the third point of difference. 

A Speech should be more interestiag than a written 
discourse. It should have far more Variety and change, 
and there might be more Humour in it. An instance 



HINTS ON SPEAKING . 387 

should be given now, and now a general principle, and 
now (see p. 178) another instance. Wherever it is pos- 
sible, the subject should be relieved by Illustrations. 
The Blackboard should be used far more often than it 
generally is, especially at Lectures. Open-air teachers 
have one very great advantage over most other teachers : 
being in the open air, they can usually take Illustra- 
tions (see p. 288) from the surroundings. 

In a long Speech it is very important that the hearers 
should have a general notion of the subject as a whole ; 
and for this purpose, unless a very clear Summary can 
be given at the beginning and at the end, it is im- 
portant to provide the hearers with a short Scheme of 
the subject itself. 

It might be suggested that such Schemes should be 
used in the House of Commons. If Speakers would 
make a Syllabus or Scheme of their Speech before 
they gave vent to it in the House, a great deal of time 
might be saved and the Ideas would be far more 
thoroughly impressed upon the members. At the same 
time, the faults or the worthlessness of a bad Speech 
would be exposed. A collection of such Schemes would 
form a very valuable education in political life. Anyone 
who collected, and arranged properly, a series of them, 
dealing with the topics of a single year of the House 
of Commons' existence, would not only be able to 
educate the Public on matters of importance, but 
would also be able to show those who were not in 
the House how their affairs were being understood 
and discussed. The same will apply to other Meetings, 
and even to Debates. 

Some Speakers write down the whole of their Speech, 
and then learn the whole of it off by heart. For this 



388 HINTS ON SPEAKING 

purpose it is very necessary to know how to learn by 
heart (see p. 87 foil.), for most people do it in the wrong 
way. It would be far better merely to learn the Scheme, 
and to get that thoroughly into one's mind, and then 
to learn by heart only a few of the more important 
passages, such as the Beginning and the Ending. 

As to other differences between Speaking and 
Writing, the Pauses, which are so hard to represent 
in Writing, can be represented in Speaking by actual 
pauses, or by what is called "Padding". It is a 
mistake to keep the attention of the audience on the 
full stretch during a long Speech, and so " Padding " 
has its value if it is used for this purpose, namely, 
as a relief. Speaking has the extra advantage of 
gesture, etc. 

But it labours under one disadvantage, namely that, 
unless the ivords are distinct and well spoken, the Speech 
may be a failure. I remember two political Speakers 
whose Speeches both appeared in the Paper the next 
day. The one 'read' as if it were exceptionally common- 
place and silly, the other ' read ' as if it must have been 
a prodigious success : the Ideas and their Expression 
seemed perfect. Someone who was present, however, 
told me that the first Speech had carried the whole 
audience with it, because it had been spoken so clearly 
and so well, the elocution being perfect and all the 
'devices' being employed in just the right places. The 
second Speech had fallen quite flat : everybody had 
fidgeted and talked throughout, because the Speech 
had been badly delivered. It was delivered or read 
almost inaudibly, and in a dull, monotonous voice, and 
without any feeling, and without any gesture, except 
such as a penny toy might make. The Speaker, then, 



Hints on speaking 389 

should at any rate master the elements of Elocution, 
and a little Book published by Messrs. Drane can be 
recommended for beginners. 

A Speaker also should have a great deal of sympathy 
with the Ideas about which he is Speaking ; and he 
should thoroughly understand them. It is far easier for 
most people to seem to understand and feel a thing when 
they Write it than when they Speak it. 

The Speaker should also have one or more objects and 
aims in view. 

He should understand human nature, and its interests, 
and especially the nature and interests of his particular 
audience. 

He must also take into account their surroundings 
and their conditions, so that he may use the right 
Comparisons -and Contrasts. One of the most striking 
features of open-air speaking and preaching (e.g. in 
Hyde Park) seems to me to be the utter failure of 
the Speakers to use the Illustrations and Comparisons 
which abound all round them, the sky, the sun, the 
flowers, the trees, the people themselves and their 
occupations. All are wont to be ignored, just as if 
the Speaker were Speaking to dummies in a bare 
Lecture-room. How extraordinarily these open - air 
mob-orators have failed to study the best model (see 
p. 214). There seems to have been nothing in the 
surroundings which is not seized on at once, as an 
Illustration of that which is being mentioned. Of 
course if the Speaker does not see the Comparisons 
and Contrasts in the things around him, there is only 
one course to adopt, and that is to practise finding 
and seeing these, as a special Exercise. 



CHAPTER LXXIII. LETTER-WRITING. 



There are very many kinds of Letters, but here I shall 
be treating chiefly of ordinary Letters. 

1. The first piece of advice is not to economise paper. 
Lines put closely together, and, what is still worse, lines 
written across the writing, are to be utterly avoided. 
As we have often said before, paper is so cheap that 
there is no need for such economy. 

2. I. should suggest that as a rule, before the writing 
begins, the Ideas should be Collected by the <: Card- 
System", or at any rate should be jotted down on a 
piece of paper, not close together and in a single line, 
but underneath one another and with intervals between. 

The advantages of taking this great care about an 
ordinary Letter are as follows. You will have records 
of what you have written, and records of the most 
convenient kind. You can prepare your Letters any- 
where, even in the train, and so save a great deal of 
time ; and it may be noticed here that the idleness 
of people, during that great portion of their lives which 
they spend in travelling and waiting, can easily be 
avoided in this way. There is a third advantage, and 
this is that in the end you will save time by this 
method : among other reasons, your Letter may be 
only half the length that it would otherwise have been. 
You will be far less likely to leave out anything of 
importance. And, besides this, the Letter will be 

390 



LETTER- WRITING 391 

pleasanter to read. Lastly, it will be very good practice 
for any kind of Composition or Speaking. 

There are some who shrink from the drudgery of 
practice as practice, but who would not shrink from 
practice of this kind, where an immediate purpose is 
to be served. 

3. The interest of the reader is to be considered 
above all things by Letter- Writers ; they should put 
themselves into the position of the reader, and imagine 
the reader's feelings and thoughts; and of course they will 
enter into these more fully if before Writing they read 
through previous Letters from the reader. I might 
mention, by the way, that to analyse previous Letters 
as they come, and to keep this analysis carefully 
catalogued (in a Book or on Cards), will be very good 
exercise in the Collection, Selection, and Arrangement 
of Ideas. 

4. Business-Letters should be as short as possible, and 
(as we have seen) this shortness can be helped by a 
careful Collection, Selection, and Arrangement of Ideas 
by the " Card-System ". These Cards should afterwards 
be kept for reference (see p. 1 Sy), and they also should 
be carefully catalogued. 

The Paragraphs of all Letters should be far shorter 
than the Paragraphs of Essays ; the Sentences also 
should be shorter, and as a general rule Brevity should 
be aimed at. This is not merely in order to save time, 
but also because a short Letter is more likely (on 
ordinary occasions) to hold the attention and interest of 
the reader. 

5. If there is any doubt about Clearness, however, 
either the passage should be re-written , or there should 
be Repetition (see p. 270) ; and perhaps occasional 



392 LETTER- WRITING 

Comparisons and Contrasts. It is a mistake to let any 
Sentence of doubtful meaning, that is to say a Sentence 
which might mean nothing, or might mean either one 
of two things, pass by itself. A Repetition of the Idea 
in another form would be almost sure to put the actual 
meaning beyond doubt. 

6. But for Clearness and for Interest there is no 
greater help than (see pp. 231, 349) picture-painting in 
the mind. In Letters there is a good deal of description, 
and, if you can imagine to yourself the actual scenes 
about which you are writing, the Ideas are far more 
likely to be clearly and vividly expressed. An occa- 
sional Drawing or Diagram is a considerable help. 

7. The Law of Relative Importance is to be observed 
in Letter-Writing as carefully as in Essay-Writing. 
The main Ideas should be made to stand out promi- 
nently, either by Repetition or by some of the other 
means suggested on page 268 foil. 

8. Humour is of course far more in place in a Letter 
than in the more serious Essay ; at least this is the 
general opinion. 

9. After the Letter has been done it should be 
read through, and should (if possible) be read out loud, 
and you should ask yourself, as you read it, whether 
it is clear, whether it is fair and true, and (last but not 
least) whether it is kind. Putting it in another way, 
you might ask yourself, ' What will the person feel and 
think on reading this ? ' or, ' Should I eventually be 
sorry to have received such a Letter myself? ' or, again, 
1 Should I be sorry to have written it, say a year 
hence ? ' 

10. For it is better to presuppose that every Letter you 
write will be kept: you must not rely on any Letter 



LETTER-WRITING 393 

being thrown away or destroyed directly it is read. It 
is this that makes it worth while to take ever so much 
more pains over Letters than people generally do. 

11. If the Letter is important, especially if it be a 
Business-Letter, there should be as long an interval as is 

feasible between the writing and the sending off. There 
have been many who have never written Business- 
Letters of any importance (and especially Letters in 
which they find fault with anyone) without keeping 
them back for a day. 

12. Records of Letters, giving the gist of them, with 
the date, etc., would be always at hand if you prepared 
the Ideas before writing the Letter. The Writer would 
find that this would soon become quite an easy and 
almost an automatic task, though at first it Would 
be somewhat difficult and slow, and would demand 
much conscious effort. 

13. It is as well to have some fixed time of the day for 
Letter- Writing, and 

14. to keep ready at hand a list of those Letters which 
yon have to write. A still better method is to address 
envelopes or postcards beforehand : this is far the 
neatest form of Memorandum. If you have to write 
a Letter to H. Jones, it is safer to address an envelope 
to H. Jones, Esq. (there is no need to write the address 
now), than to write down H. Jones on a piece of paper 
which you might forget to look at again. Such en- 
velopes and postcards can be kept in some special 
place. 

As I said above, Letter-Writing is very good practice 
for Composition, or rather it should be very good 
practice, and can easily be made so. It gives you 
facility in Collecting Ideas, in Arranging them, etc. 



394 LE TTER- WRITING 

and in turning them quickly into English, and in 
criticising this English afterwards. Undoubtedly, if 
Letter- Writing be done in the right way, it will increase 
your sympathy with, and your knowledge of, those 
to whom you write, as well as your kindness, and 
prompt and business-like habits, which are indeed an 
integral part of kindness itself. 

A few miscellaneous Hints may be added. 

15. Each Letter which you write should contain 
your home- address, and also (if necessary} the address 
to which an answer should be sent. 

16. It should have the date, namely the day of the 
month and year. 

17. Enclosures should not be omitted (though they 
frequently are). 

18. On the envelope the time of posting might be 
mentioned. It is very frequently the case that Letters 
are late, sometimes a day or two days late, and in 
applying to the Post Office it is very convenient to 
show that the Letter which was posted at ten a.m. on 
a certain day arrived at least three days late. 

19. As to the different ways of signing oneself and 
of addressing Letters, etc., I must refer to the cheap 
manuals which are published in large numbers by 
various Publishers. 

In conclusion, let me repeat, Letter-Writing is a thing 
worth spending a long time over, not only for its own 
sake, but also because it will be the best possible 
Exercise in all kinds of Speaking and Writing. For 
it is seldom easy to get any kind of Exercise which 
is itself of great use in the immediate present. Most 
Exercises are chiefly means to an end ; few are also 
an end in themselves. 



Part VI. 



PART VI. ADVANTAGES OP THIS SYSTEM, 
WITH ANSWERS TO OBJECTIONS. 



CHAPTERS PAGE 

LXXIV. Advantages of this System . . • 397 

LXXV. Objections to this System, with Answers 404 



CHAPTER LXXIV. ADVANTAGES OF 
THIS SYSTEM. 



This Method of preparing Compositions will only have 
its full advantages if it be begun carefully and with 
patience. If the reader be too hasty, and try to do 
the whole Essay at once, he will get very little 
advantage, whereas, when the different parts have been 
steadily practised one by one, then an occasional Essay, 
to be done in a given time (see p. 343), will have its 
peculiar value. 

The advantages of my Method will include all the 
1 advantages of being able to write Essays, etc.' 
(p. 3 foil.), as well as the advantages of each particular 
part of the art, for instance, the advantages of the 
"Card-System" (see p. 192 foil.), and (see p. 284 foil.) 
of Comparisons, and Contrasts. 

The advantages of a Scheme need not be entered 
into here : but it is worth remembering that, if you 
have not had time to finish writing out your Essay 
in an Examination, it may be as well to show up the 
Scheme. It is not every Examiner who will see the 
point of this : but, obviously, every Examiner ought 
to be able to judge of your Style well enough by what 
you have written out ; all your Ideas and their Arrange- 
ment he will be able to see in the Scheme : he can 
therefore easily gather what the whole Essay would 
have been. But it must be admitted that an Exami- 
397 



398 ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM 

nation should also test each pupil's power of mapping 
out his time scientifically. 

The chief advantage of a Scheme I should consider 
to be that it enables the reader or hearer to get a 
bird's-eye view of the Ideas and their Arrangement. 

One very great merit which the Method has is this. 
The ordinary Essay-Writer, when he is learning or prac- 
tising, does, let us say, an Essay on Caesar, another on 
Napoleon, another on Gladstone, and so on. Each one 
is done separately, and helps the others very little 
indeed. But, with my System, the Writer or Speaker 
has a certain set of Headings and Sub-Headings for 
all Essays on Persons (p. 93) : these he has to change, 
to a certain extent, for each particular person, but the 
foundation and plan of all may be similar, so that, after 
doing half-a-dozen Essays on Persons, he gets the 
Scheme of an Essay on any Person well into his mind. 

And not only this, but he finds that very much the 
same Headings will be useful or rather necessary when 
he comes to do an Essay or to make a Speech on a 
topic of apparently quite a different kind, e.g. (see 
p. 92) on Government, or Slavery, or War. 

Once again, supposing he has to deal with a wider 
kind of Essay or Speech, one in which it will be 
necessary to take a glance at a whole Period in all 
its important aspects (such as Government, War, 
Religion, Education, Commerce, etc.), he might, in 
the ordinary way, prepare or read twenty Essays or 
Speeches of this kind without improving very con- 
siderably : he might not yet see that there are a number 
of Headings which to a certain extent apply to all 
Essays like this (see p. 83). According to my Method, 
he will already have these Headings and Sub-Headings, 



ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM 



399 



and can then apply them to a number of separate 
subjects (such as the Age of Pericles, of Alexander 
the Great, of Cicero, of Louis XIV., etc.). After a 
certain number of such Essays or Speeches, this List 
of Headings will also be firmly fixed in his mind. 

And not only this, but here again he will find these 
Headings useful for other types of Essays, such as 
the Causes .of War; the Results of War, the Results 
of Religion, of Slavery, of Naval Power ; the Sphere of 
Government (or, as Herbert Spencer would call it, of 
Government-Interference); and see further page 133 foil. 

In other words, he will have acquired a number of 
more or less General or Universal Headings, which will 
help to draw out what he already knows on any subject, 
and will sJwiv him what he does not know, and will thus 
tell him the best topics for research and special study. 

Another advantage of my Method is that it shows 
that Essay- Writing or Speaking is not only a difficult 
art, but a very complicated art, since it comprises a 
number of departments which are almost distinct from 
one another. It is, in fact, an art which includes many 
arts. 

For this reason I have given a general view of the 
processes of Essay-Writing : I have shown (that which 
really must often have shown itself) the difficulty of 
the art, and then I have taken each part or process in the 
art, and have explained it by itself. I have shown what 
the chief faults are, and how these faults may best be 
avoided, and how excellence may best be acquired. I 
have tried to give the reasons for each Exercise which 
I have suggested. 

Two or three of the qualities which will be developed 
by this Method may be mentioned here. 



400 ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM 

First of all will come quiet and calm reflection and 
work. The Writer or Speaker will get into the habit 
not only of doing things in the right way, but of 
thinking them out logically and from many points of 
view, before he proceeds to say, or even to do. This 
cannot fail to affect his everyday life : not only in what 
he writes and in what he says, but even in what he 
thinks, he will learn to gather together what he knows 
on both sides of any given question. 

If, afterwards, he shall study politics, he will be able 
to judge of the merits or faults of political proposals ; 
he will not (as so many politicians do) look at the 
immediate effects of any proposal, but will look at the 
effects upon (see p. 125) the subsequent period also. If 
a Poor Law is proposed, he will not simply say 'This 
will help the poor to-day', but he will consider the 
effect on future generations of his countrymen. Such 
a training is very necessary indeed for some Members of 
Parliament, who at present are ill-qualified for deciding 
in favour of or against a proposal by the mere fact that 
they possess a certain amount of money. 

The study of the New Testament in Schools (and 
indeed elsewhere) is at present extraordinarily unsatis- 
factory, if we judge it by its results on the daily life : 
and that is really the only way in which we can judge 
it. Considering the ii7ne spent on it, we must decide that 
there are few branches of study which are less fruitful. 
My Method would insist on a study of the Ideas 
of the New Testament (see p. 213): the Writer or 
Speaker would have to go through the best parts and 
to pick out the real meaning, the real sense, apart from 
the language. At present very few people seem to 
work this out : they are quite content to read or to 



ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM 401 

hear a Chapter of the Bible every day, or every now 
and then ; and even if three-quarters of the Ideas are 
ill understood and ill realised, they think that they will 
be heard for their much reading, 

The New Testament, again, must also be studied for 
its Expression. The advantages of this I have pointed 
out on page 215 foil. P'or the reasons given there, if we 
study it for its Expression and Style alone, we shall 
learn more about Expression and Style than by any 
other means, and we shall be forced by the way to con- 
sider the Ideas as well. 

My Method is also especially intended for Teachers 
as zee// as for /earners. Thousands of Teachers, who 
can write Essays or make Speeches themselves, confess 
their utter inability to teach the subject at all. Those 
who do not confess this are often condemned by their 
learners : few of their learners can write good Essays or 
make good Speeches. This Book gives some of the reasons 
why this must be the case, if learners are taught the art of 
Essay- Writing and Speaking simply by Writing Essays 
and making Speeches. It is shown here that many 
special Exercises must be carefully practised one by one. 

The System also includes a scientific way of reading 
and of listening. Ninety-nine people out of a hundred 
read and listen without Method or System, and the 
result is that the Ideas, by which they might have been 
improved, are either not absorbed at all or, if absorbed, 
are just about as useful as lumber in a lumber-room. 
As in Essay -Writing, so in reading and listening, 
there must be a certain scientific system and method 
for beginners : and this method cannot be easy to 
acquire. At first it must be acquired by very great 
effort and conscious exertion. 
2 D 



402 ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM 

I have also suggested means by which the Ideas which 
are absorbed should be put to some use, and not only 
be thoroughly understood (see p. 349) but also made 
material for further use : for instance see p. 289, for 
Comparisons; 

In the Book itself I have called attention to the 
Interest of Essay- Writing and Speaking as a subject, 
quite apart from its many advantages : see p. 150. I 
feel sure that one of the greatest mistakes in our 
Education is that we give people things to learn in 
which they take not the slightest interest, although just 
a few words or a few minutes of explanation would 
show that the subject was really interesting and valuable. 
I can never see that a subject is likely to produce any 
the worse effects because the learner is told that it is 
interesting and valuable ! 

The Processes also I have tried to make interesting. 
Thus I fancy that there are very few who would not 
find the use of the '•' Card-System " (see p. 186) very 
engrossing. It makes Essay- Writing or Speaking 
almost as much a game as Whist, for the arranging 
of the hand at Whist is very similar to the arranging 
of the Cards for Essay-Writing or Speaking. 

The use of Comparisons, again, cannot fail to be 
interesting : it will be encouraging for the reader to 
know that there is scarcely anything that he himself 
understands which he may not be able to use as an 
illustration or as a means of explaining something 
which is far harder. 

In conclusion, one may say that there is scarcely a 
good mental quality or faculty which will not be im- 
proved by my System, if the System be properly used. 
A methodical plan of doing anything, patience in the 



ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM 405 

doing of it, without the demand for immediate results, 
the spirit of fairness, and a sympathy with all sorts and 
conditions of men — these are a few of the qualities 
which cannot fail to be developed. Others have been 
pointed out in the course of the Book itself. 

It is not claimed that the Method will be a complete 
Education : very far from it. But at least it will show 
the advantage of every otJier brancli of learning and 
Education, and in fact (see p. 285) will call in those 
other branches to help it. And it will give a System 
which can be applied to almost any other subject. 

But I cannot finish without a word as to its incom- 
pleteness. It is probable that the advantages of some 
Method which will be like this, but very much superior 
will be far beyond any advantages that I have claimed 
for my Method. Moreover, there are certain faculties 
which I believe will chiefly be acquired through Athletics 
and Games ; among these would be pluck, and perhaps 
mutual help and co-operation. 

But, in so far as any subject (apart from Athletics 
and Games) can approach to a complete Education, I 
think that this may be claimed for the scientific prepar- 
ation of Essays and Speeches. 



CHAPTER LXXV. OBJECTIONS TO THIS SYSTEM, 
WITH ANSWERS. 



ONE of the chief Objections to my Method will be 
that my General Lists of Headings and Sub-Headings 
(pp. 83, 92) are a kind of ' Cramming.' As a matter of 
fact the Headings, for instance those from which one 
may choose in writing an Essay or in making a Speech 
on any Person, are not Cramming at all : they really 
ask a series of questions (see p. 73), saying to the 
Writer or Speaker, 'What do you know about this 
question, and about this, and about this?' To try the 
Essay or Speech without such a List would be some- 
thing like trying to do an Examination without a paper 
of Examination Questions. If the Writer, therefore, 
will only remember that each Heading is really not a 
piece of information but a question to draw out what 
he already knows, or to call his attention perhaps to 
something which he ought to know, then he will not 
accuse the Headings of being anything like Cramming. 

Again, it may be said that there are too many Head- 
ings and Sub- Headings : that they are not all needed 
for any given Essay or Speech. I freely grant that 
in an Essay on the Age of Augustus, for example, all 
the Headings on page 83 would not be needed. 

But on the other hand I find that, without such a 
List, people are constantly forgetting to make mention 
of something which they actually know : in fact when, 
404 



OBJECTIONS AND ANSWERS 4 o~ 

in looking over Essays, I have asked the Writer 
whether he ought not to have mentioned such-and-such 
a Heading, he has nearly always said ' Yes, but it did 
not occur to me'. Secondly, such a List is very easy 
to learn, especially if it is in a Rhyme (see p. 33) ; and 
thirdly, when once it has been learnt, it is very easy to 
pick out just those Headings and Sub- Headings which 
one wants, and to reject the rest. Fourthly, to have 
a ready-made List like this saves a great deal of time 
and trouble, and produces a much better result : it calls 
to the mind of the Writer or Speaker a great many 
topics which he really knows, and suggests to him 
others which he ought to look up for himself. Above 
all, it gives him the power of rapidly forming an opinion 
on any general question. Few things are more striking 
and more lamentable than the narrowness of the point 
of view of most English people. If, however, such 
Headings as these were to be constantly used, these 
people would very soon acquire the habit of looking at 
questions from many points of view, and not from one 
only. There is yet a sixth point, and that is that every 
year we see more and more subjects included in the 
list of ' things worth mentioning '. Contrast the " Daily 
Mail " of to-day with an old-fashioned paper, and you 
will see how much that was utterly ignored years ago 
is now thought deserving of a whole column. Then, 
again, such Lists gives a fairly good order for general 
purposes. For the other advantages, see page 73, 

But the real test of whether it is good or not is to 
try an Essay like the ' Results of Geography on English 
History', first of all without any General List, and 
then with the Lists on pages 83, 107: compare the 
Scheme which you get by the one process with the 



4'o6 OBJECTIONS AND ANSWERS 

Scheme which you get by the other process, and then 
decide whether the general List is really worth learning 
or not. 

It may be said, however, that such Lists would do 
away with Originality. But, as a matter of fact, there 
will be plenty of room left for Originality (see p. 219) in 
the Selecting and Rejecting of Ideas, in the Underlining 
of Ideas, in the working out of Comparisons and Con- 
trasts, and in seeing each Idea clearly as a definite 
picture in the mind's eye : all this gives scope for 
Originality. And, besides, if the Essay -Writer or 
Speaker is provided with ten Headings, instead of the 
eight which he would think of if he were left to himself, 
then surely he has more chance of Originality in working 
out the ten Headings than he would have in working 
out the eight. He has a far wider sphere within which 
to work. 

If it should be thought that it is an error to make 
the various processes of Essay- Writing or Speaking me- 
chanical and conscious ; that the 'joints' will appearand 
that the mechanism will stand out ; then I reply that 
this is the only way for those who do not do the thing 
correctly by nature and by instinct. It is all very well 
for the genius himself to write a good Essay or make a 
good Speech straight off, and then to lay down the 
universal Law that the right way of making an Essay 
or Speech is simply to make it at once, and not to 
trouble about processes : when he comes to teach a 
Class of various pupils, his theory will prove to be a 
dead failure. Personally, I have found very few Honours 
men at Cambridge able to write a good Essay even on 
an easy subject : they have no method at all. In such 
cases (where, if anywhere, one might expect success) it 



OBJECTIONS AND ANSWERS 407 

is necessary to begin at the beginning again. But how 
much better it would have been if the beginnings had 
been got through and the foundations laid during School- 
life. It seems to me that there must be something radi- 
cally wrong with our School Education if it does not 
teach the average boy or man to write a fairly good 
piece of English Composition or to make a fairly good 
Speech. That which is neglected at School seems to be 
beneath the dignity of the University to trouble about, 
and hence as a rule the real processes are never taught 
at all. 

It is true that the ' mechanism ' may appear at first : 
the result will be something stiff and unnatural. But, 
after the various processes have been steadily practised 
one by one, especially those processes in which the 
individual is weakest, the processes will work far more 
smoothly and easily and rapidly not only by themselves, 
as special and isolated Exercises, but also in combina- 
tion within the Essay or Speech. 

It is said that ' Correct Reasoning cannot be taught ' : 
I think that the right way of expressing this would be 
that "hitherto a large number of learned people have 
failed to teach average individuals to reason correctly ". 
If the processes of correct reasoning were taught very 
carefully and slowly and in the right way, and if they 
were afterwards practised (e.g. see p. 150 foil.), then it 
could hardly be denied that the power of correct reason- 
ing would be enormously improved. We may not be 
able to help some (who are called 'duffers') to do things 
perfectly, but we may be able to put them in the way of 
doing things better than they do them at present : as it 
is, we tell them simply to ' practise ', whereas we ought 
first of all to show them how to practise. The secret of 



4o8 OBJECTIONS AND ANSWERS 

practice, for duffers and indeed for most learners, is to 
practise, at first, not the whole process, but its various 
parts, one by one, correctly, slowly, and again and again, 
until each has become half automatic. 

I grant that it is a pleasure to read an Essay by a 
genius, but I cannot agree that it would be a pity to 
raise the general standard of excellence, and to help the 
average person to achieve, as a task of great effort and 
constant care, very much the same result that the genius 
achieves without any such effort or care, and by a kind 
of instinct. As it is now, too much thought is bestowed 
on the genius ; too much is left for the other boys to do 
by themselves or not to do at all : it would be far better 
if these were coached and practised in the foundations 
and elements, and then left to themselves more and 
more. 

One of the greatest faults of our School-system is that 
the genius is encouraged and pushed forward, while 
there is no methodical system for helping the plodder to 
rise to the standard of the genius, and by hard work 
and conscious perseverance, for which he deserves real 
praise and glory, to make up for what he lacks in correct 
instinct and in unconscious ability, for which natural 
gifts he himself deserves no praise or glory whatsoever. 



APPENDIX. SOME USEFUL REFERENCE BOOKS. 



THE following list might easily be trebled : but I 
have preferred to give few works beyond those which 
I myself have found most useful. I should be glad, 
however, if my readers would suggest others. 

The Asterisk * marks a work as likely to be especially 
useful to beginners. 

Articles : very numerous (in the " Athenaeum", " Fortnightly", 
"Nineteenth Century", "North American Review", etc.). 



Askew (J. B.). 
Dawson (C. J.) 

*Fowler (J. H.) 
Froebel 

Gibson (L. M.) 

^Hartley 
Hinsdale (B. A.) 

(?) 
" Kay . 

Lamb (J. B.) 

Lewes (G. H.) 

Lobban (j. H.) 

Meiklejohn . 



Pros and Cons (Swan Sonnenschein). 
Essay - Writing and Paraphrasing 

(McDougall). 
Nineteenth Century Prose (Black). 
Educational Laws for All Teachers 

(Edward Arnold). 
Handbook for Litei'ary and Debating 

Societies (Hodder and Stoughton). 
How to Speak Well (Drane). 
Teachitig the Language Arts (Appleton) 
How to Write (Walter Scott). 
Memory (Cambridge University Press), 
Practical Hints on Writing for the Press 

(Bradbury, Agnew). 
Principles of Success in Literature 

(Scott). 
English Essays (Blackie). 
The Art of Writifig English, and 

A Hundred Short Essays (Holden). 
409 



4io 



APPENDIX 



Skipton (H.) . 
Spencer (H.) . 
Stout (G. F.) . 
Wagner (L.) . 
*Wendell (Barrett) 
Miles (E.H.) 
Morrell 
Pater (W.) . 
Raleigh (W.) . 
Shaylor (J.) . 



The Essay- Writer (Crosby Lockwood). 
Sociology (Kegan Paul). 
Manual of Psychology (Clive). 
How to Publish (Redway). 
English Composition (Scribner's Sons). 
How to Remember (Warne : in the press). 
History of Mental Philosophy (Stewart). 
Appreciations (Macmillan). 
Style (Edward Arnold). 
The Pleasures of Literature. 
Saunterings in Bookland 
(Wells, Gardner, Darton). 



A few general books may be added : 



*Buckle (T.) . 


History of Civilisation in England. 


Cunningham (Dr. W. ) 


Western Civilisation in its Eco?io?nic 




Aspects, and other works. 


*Guizot . 


History of Civilisation. 


Ihering (R. von) 


Evolution of the Aryan 




(Swan Sonnenschein). 


Motley 


Netherlands. 


Prescott 


Co?iquest of Mexico, and Conquest of 




Peru. 


Seeley (J. R.) . 


Expansion of England. 



INDEX 



Abbreviations: 70, 18S 
Absence of Emphasis : 278 
Abstract and Concrete : 273, 349 
Adaptation : 243 foil. ; and see Ap- 
propriateness. 
Advantages of my System : 397 
foil, 
of Collecting Ideas : 69 
of General Lists: 73 foil., 398 

foil.; 404 foil, 
of Period-Headings : 84 foil, 
of Studying 

Authorities: 139 
Evidences: 147 foil, 
the New Testament for Style 1217 

foil. 
of Rejecting Headings: 169 
of Writing and Speaking well: 
3 foil. 
Advertisements: 259, 260 
Aims and Motives: 102 
of Teaching: 345 foil, 
of Writers and Speakers : 48 foil. 
Alias (Ornate Alias): 254 
Aliens: see Other Peoples. 
Alliteration: 304 
Amusements: 119 
Analogies and Comparisons: 281 

foil. ; and see Comparisons. 
Analogy: 321 

in Language: 207 
Analysis: 213, 214, 314, 362 



Anglo-Saxon Words : 244, 305 

Anticipation: 275 

Anti-Climb: 301; see Bathos. 

Antithesis ; see Parallelism and Co 
trast. 

Appearance: 155 
fallacy of: 55 

Appropriateness: 41 foil., 224, 243 
foil, and passim 

Aristotle : 206 foil. 

Arrange (How to Arrange Head- 
ings) : 1 72 foil. , 264 

Articles for Magazines, etc. : 5 ; and 
see 367 foil. 

Author (Essay on) : 129 foil. 

Authorities, and their Faults: 139 
foil. 

Authority (fallacy of trusting to it) : 
152 

Averages, Law of: 157 



B 

Bad Schemes of Essays : 54 foil. 
Bain: 177, 276, 299 foil. 
Balance : 215, 300; and see Rhythm. 
Bathos: 225, 260, 301 
Beginnings: 215, 258 foil; and see 

Interest. 
Bias: 141, 153 
Blackboard: 387 
Blending: 321 foil. 
Bonds of Union: 112 



412 



INDEX. 



Books (List of Useful) : 409 

How to Read : 352 foil. 
Brevity: 239 foil., 247 
Buckle: 149 

Building (analogy from) : xv 
Business-letters: 391 



Capital letters: 326 
Card-System: 186 foil , 355, 3S2 
foil. 
Advantages: 192 foil. 
Carlyle: 38 
Causes: 96, 155 
Change (need of Changes in work) : 

35i, 363 

Changes: 127, 130; and see 

Motives. 
Chapters : 308 foil. 
Chiasmus: 177 

Choice of Subjects: 13 foil., 339 
Cicero: 304 

Classes in the State: no foil. 
Clearness : 39, 227 foil. 

needed in Speaking: 384 foil. 
Climax: 30 1 ; and see Endings. 
Cohesion: 263 foil. ; see Connexion. 
Collect Ideas (How to) : 63 foil. 
Commas: 328 foil. 
Comparisons: 215, 234, 249, 281 

foil. 
Complexity of Essay-Writing and 

Speaking: xvi 
Concentration of Attention: passim, 

e.g. 190, 196, 350, 351 
Concrete: 235 foil., 273, 349 
Connectives: 265 
Connexion: 41, 179, 208, 263 foil. 
Conscious effort needed at first : 

406 and passim 
Contamination: 321 foil. 



Contrasts: 215, 234. 271. 291 foil. 

Co-operation : 40 ; and see Sen- 
tences, etc. 

Correct (how to correct Compo- 
sitions) : 335 foil. 

Correct Reasoning: 407; and see 
Fallacies 
Proofs (How to): 377 foil. 

Corrections in Printing : 377 foil. 

Cramming — this System is not like 
Cramming: 404. 

Criticism: 129 foil., 267, 338, 368 

Custom : 6, 153 

D 

Debates: 343, 387 

Definitions: 159 foil. 

Delays in writing for the Press : 369 
foil. 

Demosthenes: 181 

Description : 97; and see Realising. 

Dictation: 374 foil. 

Difficulties and Faults in Essay- 
Writing, etc. : 44 foil, 
in Style : 205 foil. 

Division of Labour: 272; see 
Specialisation. 

Drawing of Plans, etc. : 349 



Economy: 37 foil., 238, 375 
Editors and Publishers : 14, 36S 

foil. 
Education: 117 foil. 

faults: 407, etc. 

tendencies of English Education: 

3 
Effects: 104, 125, 132, 156 
Elocution: 388 
Emotions appealed to : 226, 254 



INDEX. 



413 



Emphasis: 182, 209, 268 foil. 

absence of: 278 
Endings: 261 foil. 
Environment: 96 
Epigram: 301 
Evidences and their Failings: 

foil. 
Exaggeration: 235 
Examinations: 340, 397 
'Exclusions': 161,292 
Exercises: passim, e.g. 

in arousing Interest : 256 

in Arrangement : 1 73 foil. 
Expression — General Remarks 
foil. 

illustrated by 
212 foil. 
Extreme Cases : 



146 



Matt. 



15-27: 



149 



Faculties developed by Essay- 
Writing: 399 foil., and cp. 3 foil. 

Fairness: 60; and see Open-minded- 
ness, Bias. 

Fallacies: 150 foil. 

False Economy of Paper : 46, 238, 
390 

Faults in Essay- Writing and Speak- 
ing: xvii, 44, etc. 
in Education : 3, etc. 
in Expression : 255 foil, 
in Punctuation : 328 
in Reading: 352 
in Teaching: 327 foil., etc. 

Finance: 122 

Fitness: 243; and see Appropriate- 
ness. 

Flattery: 257, 363 

Force: 222 

Formulas: 161 



Games, analogies from: xiii, 13, 289 
advantages of studying : xviii, 289 

General (essay on a general): 105 
folk, 274 

General Essay-Headings: 91 - 

General Hints : 36, 360 folk 

General Lists — Advantages : 73 folk, 
398, 404 folk ; and see Headings. 

General Principles of Composition : 
37 foil. 

Genius (often a bad teacher) : xiv, 
xviii, etc. 

Geography and its divisions: 107 
as Evidence: 145 

Geology; see Geography. 

Gibbon: 232, 254 

Good Use: 320, 327 

Government: 113 folk 

Grammar: 320 folk 

Groups of Ideas: 180 

Groups of People: 96, 112 



H. 

Headings : 

for Period (and Causes, Results, 
Sphere, etc ): 79 folk 

Uses: 84 

for General Essays : 9 1 

for Person: 93 

for x\uthor: 129 

Advantages of General Lists: 73 
folk, 39S, 404 foil. 

Often Omitted : 7 1 folk 

How to Collect : 63 foil. 

Card- System ; 186 

Select and Reject: 166 folk 

Underline: 170 folk 

Arrange: 172; see also Sub- 
Headings. 



4i4 



INDEX. 



Health: 120, 327 

Healthiness of Ideas : 60 

Hearer to be considered: 231, etc. 

Heredity: 96, 126, 148 

Hindrances: 97, 155 

Historians : 140 foil. ; and see 

Fallacies: 150 foil. 
Home-life: 119 foil. 
House of Commons : 387 
Humour : 301, 392 



I 

Ideas as Headings: 66 foil. 

what they should be: 60 foil.; 
see also Collect, Arrange, etc. 
Imitation: 355; and see Originality. 
Immediate Causes judged by : 155 
Impressiveness : 215 
Indentation: 59, 68, 184 
Indenting: 59, 68, 184 
Index-making (Hints) : 381 foil. 
Individuality: 97 foil., n I 
Individuals (Essays on): 93 foil., 

in 
Industries: 122 
Inferences: 146 

wrong: 156 
Infinitive (Split): 320, 321 
Instances: 178 

Extreme: 149 

and Principles : 178, 179 
Intellect: 98 

Interest: 180, 215, 255 foil. 
Interjections: 301 
Intervals — needed in Essay-Pre- 
paring: 65, 330 

in Speaking: 385 foil. 
Innuendo: 301 
Inversion: 276 
Irony: 301 



Judgment: 101 
Justice: 115 



Language: 118; and see Analogy. 

as Evidence : 146 
Latin Attention to Rhythm: 303 
foil. 

Prose: 234 

Words: 244, 305 
Law: 115 

as Evidence: 146 
Leading Men: 128 
Learn Lists (How to): 87 foil. 
Lectures (How to Listen to): 358; 

and see 384 foil. 
Length : 

of Articles : 5 

of Books, etc.: ^"jt, 

of Words: 271 

and see Paragraphs, Brevity, etc. 
Letters to Publishers and Editors: 

371 foil. 
Letter-Writing : 390 foil. 

Advantages: 390 foil., 394 

Card-System: 391 foil. 
Listen and Lea-rn (How to): 358 

foil. 
Literature — Classes of Writings: 

131- 

Litotes : 301 
Livy : 140 foil. 

M 

Magazines: 5 
Manuscripts: 367 foil. 
Margins : 326, 362 
Marking of Books: 355 
Mass of Words: 271 
Matthew vii. 15-27 — as an Illus- 
tration of Style: 211 foil. 



INDEX. 



415 



.Meiosis: 301 

Memoranda for Letters : 393 
Memory: 7, 237, 284, 384; and 

see Rhymes. 
Metaphors: 287; and see Com- 
parisons. 
Metonymy: 276 
c Middle' of Essays, etc.: 183 
Mixed Metaphors : 254 
Modern Tendencies in Newspapers, 

etc.: 76 
Mood: 253 
Morality ; see Virtues. 
Motives: 102 foil., 155 
Appealed to: 216 
Changes and Mixtures: 48 foil , 

102 
of Writers and Speakers : 48, 49 



N 
Napoleon: 281 

Natural = best — a fallacy: 45, 236 
Newspapers : 76 ; and see Articles. 
New Testament: 212 foil., 289, 

306, 343, 400 foil. 
Note-Books : 66, 354 



Objections should be given: 161, 

167 
to my System, with Answers: 

404 foil. 
Occupations: 120 foil. 
Omissions, as Evidence of Headings : 

149 
Omitted Headings: 71 
Open-mindedness : 6, 150; and 

see Fairness. 
Order and Justice : 115 



Order of Ideas in Essay : 178 ; and 

see 'Arrange', 
of Words: 230, 316 foil., 325 
Originality: 61, 167, 170, 219 foil., 

406 
Other Peoples : 123 foil. 

P 

Padding (its use) : 388 

Paper : see False Economy, Writing 

for Press, etc. 
Paradox: 258 
Paragraphs: 310 foil. 

length: 247 

for Newspapers: 5 
Paraphrasing: 231, 252 foil., 349 
Parallelism: 215, 300 
Parallels, etc. : 162, 279 foil. 
Part-by-part Method of Learning: 
xiv foil., 337 foil., 346 foil., 
etc. 
Participle (too free use) : 321 
Period (in Composition): 250, 319 
Period-Headings: 79 

Previous Period: 126 

Subsequent Period: 125 
Personal form: 214, 231 
Philip of Macedon: 281 
Phonograph: 375 
Pictures in the mind: 231 
Poetry: 31 

Politics (preparation for) : 400 
Popular Audiences: 217; and see 

28 1 foil. 
Position of Body: 326 foil. 
Practice, 347 foil. 
Precision : 226 
Precis- writing : 183, 195 
Previous Period: 126 
Principles and Instances: 178 
Principles of Composition: 37 foil. 



4i6 



INDEX. 



Probability: 144 

Progress: 127 

Headings for Essay on: 135 

Pronouns: 275 

Proportion: 41, 142, 170 foil., 209, 
239 ; and see Underline 

Proofs (for Printing) : 377 foil. 

Proverbs: 85, 152, 235; and see 
Fallacies. 

Prose — divisions of Prose Litera- 
ture: 131 

Prudery (mistaken) : 168 

Public Works: 108 foil. 

Publishers : 367 foil. 

Punctuation: 317, 328 foil. 

Q 

Questions: 216, 256, 259, 296 foil. 
Quotations: 85, 163 foil., 259 



Read (how to) : 352 foil. 

Reader to be considered: 231, etc. 

Readers (of Publishers) : 376 foil. 

Reading out loud : 307, 363 

Realising: 349 

Refutation: 271 

Rejection of MSS. by Editors, etc. : 

14, 376 
Religion: 1 16, 117 

as Evidence: 146 
Repetition: 216 
Results; see Effects. 
Resumee Method: 247, 266, 354 
Revisions: 330 foil. 
Rhetorical Devices: 209, 242, 272 

foil. , 299 foil. 
Rhymes : 

General Hints: 36 

the Ideas : 62 



Period-Headings: $2 

General Headings: 92 

Faults of Authorities: 144 

Fallacies: 158 

Style: 204 

How to Learn : 88 
Rhythm: 7, 216, 225, 245, 2.19, 

303 foil. 
Rights of Individuals: 116 
Roman Conquests and Successes: 
xvii, 185, 263, 273 foil. 

S 

Safe Rules: 320, 324, 362 

for Letter-Writing : 392 foil. 
Schemes: 68, 189 

Advantages of; 372 foil., 397 
Schoolboy Essays: 44 foil., etc. 
Select and Reject (How to): 166 

foil. 
Sentences: 315 foil. 

length: 248 
' Sermon on the Mount ' — a passage 

analysed: 212 foil. 
Shorthand Clerks : 375 
Simplicity: 227 
Slang: 245 
Social Life: 119 foil. 
Speaking : 384 foil. 

must be Clear : 227, 386 

must have fewer Ideas : 

Illustrations: 389 

intervals needed : 385 . 

memory: 384 

classes of Speeches : 385 
Special Essays (Headings): 91, 92 
Specialisation: 4, 137 
Spelling : 327 foil. 
Spencer (H.): 228 
Sphere of Government : 114 
Standards of Judgment 1 : 101 



INDEX. 



417 



Statistics of Collecting Ideas, etc. : 

64 
Style — how to examine it: 211 foil. 

in general : 202 foil. 
Subjects for Essays— common types; 
9 foil. 
for study : 360 
Subsequent Period: 125 
Sub-Headings: 95 foil, 
for Period: 107 foil. 
for Person : 96 foil. 
Suggestiveness : 61, 224; and see 

Interest. 
Summarising: 1S3, 195 

in Speaking: 387 
Summary of the Book : 27 foil. 
Syntax: 320 foil. 

Sympathy encouraged by Essay- 
writing: 7, 349 



Tautology: 325; and see Variety. 

Teach (How to teach Composition) : 
290, 337 foil, and passim 
by learners : 23 foil, and passim 
faults in Teaching: see Faults. 

Technical Terms : 228 foil. 

Telegrams : 66 

Tendencies: ico, 127 

Tense: 253 

Titles of -Books, etc., important: 
374 

Topics for Essays : 133 foil. 

Types of Subjects: 9 folk. 133 

Typewriting: 326, 368 foil. 

Tyrants (Essay on): 44 folk, 160 



U 



Underline (How to underline Head- 
ings) : 1 70 folk 

' Under the circumstances ' t 207 

Unions: ill 

Unify: 37 folk, 243, 312 

Uses of Period-Headings: 84; and 
see Headings. 



Variety: 42, 208, 216, 251 folk 

unnecessary: 254, 325 
Various Classes of Compositions: 

16 folk 
Vigour: 222 folk 
Virtues (List) : 99 folk 
Vocabulary : 248, 324 foil. 
Voice: 253 

W 

War: 124 folk 

Ways of Learning: 23 folk 

Wealth: 122 

Wendell (Prof. Barrett): 41, 191, 

243, etc. 
Whitaker's Almanack : 77 
Words (Vocabulary) : 324 folk 
Latin or Anglo-Saxon : 244, 24S, 

305 
W T ord-play: 277 

Work — Need of Change: 351, 363 
Writing: 312 folk, 326; and see 

Type-writing. 
Writing for Press (Hints) : 367 folk 
as opposed to Speaking : 3S4 



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